Notes on the Old and New Testaments

The intimations about the structure, the size, and the support of the earth, are also very obscure, and the views entertained would seem to have been very confused. Language is used, doubtless, such as would express the popular belief, and it resembles that which is commonly employed in the Scriptures. The common representation is, that the heavens are stretched out as a curtain or tent, or sometimes as a solid concave sphere in which the heavenly bodies Vixe fixed (see Notes on Isa. xxxiv. 4), and that the earth is an immense plain, surrounded by water, which reached the concave heavens in which the stars were fixed. Occasionally the earth is represented as supported by pillars, or as resting on a solid foundation; and once we meet v/ith an intimation that it is globular, and suspended in space.

In the following passages the earth and the sky are represented as supported by pillars:

He sh^keth the earth out of her place, And the pillars thereof tremble, ch. ix. 6.

The pillars of heaven tremble,

And are astonished at his rebuke, ch. xxvi. 11,

In the latter passage the reference is to mountains, which seem to uphold the sky as pillars, in accordance with the common and popular representation among the ancients. Thus Mount Atlas, in Mauritania, was represented as a pillar on which heaven was suspended:

"■ Atlas' broad shoulders prop th' incumbent skies, Around his cloud-girt head the stars arise."

In the following passage the earth is represented as suspended on nothing, and there would seem to be a slight evidence that the true doctrine about the form of the earth was then known:

He stretcheth out the North over the empty space, And hangeth the earth upon nothing, ch. xxvi. 7.

See particularly the Notes on that passage. Though the belief seems to have been that the earth was thus 'self-balanced,' yet there is no intimation that they were acquainted with the fact that it revolves on its axis, or around the sun as a centre.

There are few intimations of the prevalent knowledge of geogiaphy in the time of Job. In one instance foreign regions are mentioned, though there is no certainty that the countries beyond Palestine are there referred to:

Have ye not inquired of the travellers?

And will ye not hear their testimony? ch. xxi. 29.

In the close of the book, in the mention of the hippopotamus and the crocodile, there is evidence that there was some knowledge of the land of Egypt, though no intimation is given of the situation or extent of that country.

The cardinal points are referred to, and there is evidence in this book, as well as elsewhere in the Scriptures, that the geographer then regarded himself as lookincr towards the East. The South was thus the ' right hand,' the North the left hand, and the West the region * behind:'

Behold, I go to the East, and he is not there;

And to the West, but I cannot perceive him;

To the North, where he doth work, but I cannot behold him;

He hideth himself on the South, that I cannot see him. ch. xxiii. 8.

Whatever was the form of the earth, and the manner in which it was sustained, it is evident from the following passage that the land was regarded as surrounded by a waste of waters, whose outer limit was deep and impenetrable darkness:

He hath drawn a circular bound upon the waters,

To the confines of the light and darkness, ch. xxvi. 10.

Yet the whole subject is represented as one with which man was then unacquainted, and which was beyond his grasp:

Hast thou observed the breadths of the earth? Declare, if thou knowest it all. ch. xxxviii. 18.

For a full illustration of this passage, and the views of geography which then prevailed, the reader is referred to the Notes. It is evident that the knowledge of geography, so far as is indicated by this book, was then very limited, though it should also be said that in the argument of the poem there was little occasion to refer to knowledge of this kind, and that few intimations are to be expected on the subject.

There are much more frequent intimations of the state of knowledge on the various subjects embraced under this head, than of either astronomy or geography. These intimations show that these subjects had excited much attention, and had been the result of careful observation; and in regard to some of them there are indications of a plausible theory of their causes, though most of them are appealed to as among the inscrutable things of God. The facts excited the wonder of the Arabian observers, and they clothed their conceptions of them in the most beautiful language of poetry; but they do not often attempt to explain them. On the contrary, these obvious and undisputed facts, so inscrutable to them, are referred to as full proof that we cannot hope to comprehend the ways of God, and as a reason why we should bow before him with profound adoration. Among the things referred to are the following:

(a) The Aurora Borealis, or Northern lights. Thus the magnificent description of the approach of the Almighty to close the controversy (ch. xxxvii. 21-23), seems to have been borrowed by Elihu from the beautiful lights of the North, in accordance with the common opinion that the North was the seat of the Divinity •

And now — man cannot look upon the bright splendor that is on the

For the wind passeth along and maketh them clear. [clouds!

Golden splendor approaches from the North: —

How fearful is the majesty of God!

The Almighty! we cannot find him out!

Great in power and in justice, and vast in righteousness!

{b) Tornadoes, whirlwinds, and tempests, were the subject of careful observation. The sources whence they usually came were attentively marked, and the various phenomena which they exhibited were so observed that the author of the poem was able to describe them with the highest degree of poetic beauty:

With his hands he covereth the lightning,

And commandeth it where to strike.

He pointeth out to it his friends —

The collecting of his wrath is upon the wicked.

At this also my heart palpitates,

And is moved out of its place.

Hear, O hear, the thunder of his voice!

The muttering thunder that goes forth from his mouth!

He directeth it under the whole heaven.

And his lightning to the ends of the earth.

He thundereth with the voice of his majesty,

And he will not restrain the tempest when his voice is heard.

Terrors come upon him like waters,

In the night a tempest stealeth him away.

The East wind carrieth him away, and he departeth,

(c) The dew had been carefully observed, yet the speakers did not understand its phenomena. How it was produced; whether it descended from the atmosphere, or ascended from the earth, thej did not profess to be able to explain. It was regarded as one of the things which God only could understand; yet the manner in which it is spoken of shows that it had attracted deep attention, and led to much inquiry:

And who hath begotten the drops of the dew.? ch. xxxviii. 28.

(d) The same remarks may be made of the formation of the hoar-frost, of snow, of hail, and of ice. There is no theory suggested to account for them, but they are regarded as among the things which God alone could comprehend, and which evinced his wisdom. There had been evidently much careful observation of the facts, and much inquiry into the cause of these things; but the speakers did not profess to be able to explain them. To this day, also, there is much about them which is unexplained, and the farther the investigation is carried, the more occasion is there to admire the wisdom of God in the formation of these things. See the Notes on the passages that will now be referred to:

From whose womb came the ice.''

By the breath of God frost is produced,

And the broad waters become compressed, ch. xxxvii. 10.

For he saith to the snow, ' Be thou on the earth.' ch. xxxvii 6.

Hast thou been into the storehouses of snow.? Or seen the storehouses of hail. Which I have reserved until the time of trouble, To the day of battle and war.? ch. xxxviii. 22, 23.

(e) The dawning of the morning is described with great beauty, and is represented as wholly beyond the power of man to produce or explain:

Hast thou, in thy life, given commandment to the morning.?

Or caused the dawn to know his place?

That it may seize on the fir corners of the earth,

And scatter the robbers before it?

It turns itself along like clay under the seal.

And all things stand forth as if in gorgeous apparel.*

* For the meaning of this uncommonly beautiful im.igery, see the Notes on this place.

(d) So all the phenomena of light are represented as evincing the wisdom of God, and as wholly beyond the ability of man to explain or comprehend them; yet so represented as to show that it had been a subject of careful observation and reflection:

Where is the way to the dwelling-place of light?

And the darkness, where is its place?

That thou couldst conduct it to its limits,

And that thou shouldst know the path to its dwelling?

{e) The clouds and rain also had been carefully observed, and the laws which governed them were among the inscrutable things of God:

Who can number the clouds by wisdom?

And who can empty the bottles of heaven? ch. xxxviii. 37.

The clouds seem to have been regarded as a solid substance capable of holding rain like a leathern bottle, and the rain was caused by their emptying themselves on the earth. Yet the whole phenomena were considered to be beyond the comprehension of man. The laws by which the clouds were suspended in the air, and the reason why the rain descended in small drops instead of gushing floods, were alike incomprehensible:

Who also can understand the outspreading of the clouds, And the fearful thunderings in his pavilion? ch. xxxvi. 29.

For he draweth up the drops of water;

They distil rain in his vapor.

Which the clouds pour down;

He bindeth up the waters in the thick clouds, And the cloud is not rent under them. ch. xxvi. 8.

(/) The sea had also attracted the attention of these ancient observers, and there were phenomena there which they could not explain:

Who shut up the sea with doors,

In its bursting forth as from the womb?

When I made the cloud its garment.

And swathed it in thick darkness?

I measured out for it its limits.

And fixed its bars and doors,

And said, Thus far shalt thou come, but no farther!

And here shall thy proud waves be stayed! ch. xxxviii. 8-11.

There is a reference here, undoubtedly, to the creation; but as this is the language of God describing that event, it cannot be determined with certainty that a knowledge of the method of creation had been communicated to them by tradition. But language like this implies that there had been a careful observation of the ocean, and that there were things in regard to it which were to them incomprehensible. The passage is a most sublime description of the creation of the mighty mass of waters, and while it is entirely consistent with the account in Genesis, it supplies some important circumstances not recorded there.

The twenty-eighth chapter of the book — one of the most beautiful portions of the Bible — contains a statement of the method of mining then practised, and shows that the art was well understood. The mechanical devices mentioned, and the skill with which the process was carried on, evince considerable advance in the arts:

Truly, there is a vein for silver,

And a place for gold where they refine it.

Iron is obtained from the earth,

And ore is fused into copper.

Man puttelh an end to darkness,

And completely searches every thing —

The rocks, the thick darkness, and the shadow of death.

He sinks a shaft far from a human dwelling;

They, unsupported by the feet, hang suspended j

Far from men they swing to and fro.

The earth — out of it cometh bread;

And when turned up beneath, it resembles fire.

Its stones are the places of sapphires,

And gold dust pertains to it.

The path thereto no bird knoweth,

And the vulture's eye hath not seen it.

The fierce wild beasts have not trodden it,

And the lion hath not walked over it.

Man layeth his hand upon the flinty rock;

He overturneth mountains from their foundations;

He cutteth out canals among the rocks,

And his eye seeth every precious thing.

He restraineth the streams from trickling down,

And bringeth hidden things to light, vs. 1-11.

The operation of mining must have early attracted attention, for the art of working metals, and of course their value, was understood in a very early age of the world. Tubal Cain is described as an '' instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." Gen. iv. 22. The description in Job shows that this art had received much attention, and that in his time it had been carried to a high degree of perfection. See Notes on ch. xxviii. l-ll.

There is frequent mention of precious stones in the book of Job, and it is evident that they were regarded as of great value, and were used for ornament. The following are mentioned, as among the precious stones, though some of them are now ascertained to be of little value. There is evidence that they judged, as was necessarily the case in the early age of the world, rather from appearances than from any chemical knowledge of their nature. The onyx and sapphire:

It [wisdom] cannot be estimated by the gold of Ophir j By the precious onyx, or the sapphire, ch. xxviii. 16.

No mention shall be made of coral or of crystal;

For the price of wisdom is above rubies, ch. xxviii. 18.

The topaz found in Ethiopia, or Cush:

The topaz of Cush cannot equal it,

Nor can it be purciiased with pure gold. ch. xxviii. 19.

These were found as the result of the processes of mining, though it is not known that the art of engraving on them was known. It is, moreover, not entirely easy to fix the signification of the original words used here. See Notes on ch. xxviii.

It is not quite certain, though there is some evidence, that the art of coining was known in the days of Job. The solution of this question depends on the meaning of the word rendered * a piece of money,' in ch. xlii. 11. For an examination of this, the reader is referred to the Notes on that verse.

There is the fullest evidence that the art of writing was then known:

O that my words were now written!

O that they were engraved on a tablet 1

That with an iron graver, and with lead,

Behold my defence! May the Almighty answer me!

Would that he who contends with me would write down his charge!

Truly upon my shoulder would I bear it;

The materials for writing are not indeed particularly mentioned, but it is evident that permanent records on stone were made; that this was done sometimes by making use of lead; and also that it was common to make use of portable materials, and as would seem of flexible materials, since Job speaks (ch. xxxi.) of binding the charge of his adversary, when written down, around his head like a turban or diadem. Comp. Notes on Isa. viii. 1, xxx. 8. Though the papyrus, or 'paper reed,' of Egypt, seems to be once alluded to (see Notes on ch. viii. 11), yet there is no evidence that it was known as a material for writing.

Physicians are once mentioned:

For truly ye are forgers of fallacies; Physicians of no value, all of you. ch. xiii. 4.

But there is no intimation of the methods of cure, or of the remedies that were applied. It is remarkable that, so far as appears, no methods were taken to cure the extraordinary malady of Job himself. He excluded himself from society, sat down in dust an*/ ashes, and merely attempted to remove the offensive matter that th( disease collected on his person; ch. ii, 8. So far as appears from the Scriptures, the means of cure resorted to in early times were chiefly external applications. See Notes on Isa. i. 6, xxxviii. 21, 22. " Physicians " are mentioned in Gen. 1. 2, but only in connection with embalming, where it is said that " Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father, and the physicians embalmed Israel."

Musical instruments are mentioned in the book of Job in such a manner as to show that the subject of music had attracted attention, though w^e may not be able now to ascertain the exact form of the instruments which were employed:

They excite themselves with the tabor and the harp, And rejoice at the sound of the pipe. ch. xxi. 12.

My harp also is turned to mourning,

And my pipes to notes of grief, ch. xxx. 31.

For an explanation of these terms, the reader is referred to the Notes on these passages. We have evidence that music was cultivated long before the time in which it is supposed Job lived (Gen. iv. 21), though there is no certainty that even in his time it haa reached a high degree of perfection.

One of the earliest arts practised in society would be that of taking and destroying wild beasts, and we find several allusions to the methods in which this was done, in the book of Job. Nets, gins, and pitfalls, were made use of for this purpose, and in order to drive the wild beasts into the nets or pitfalls, it was customary for a number of persons to extend themselves in a forest, inclosing a large space, and gradually drawing nearer to each other and to the centre:

His strong steps shall be straitened,

And his own plans shall cast him down.

For he is brought into his net by his own feet,

And into the pittall he walks.

Tiic snare takes him by the heel,

And the gin takes fast hold of him.

A net is secretly laid for him in the ground,

And a trap for him in the pathway, ch. xviii. 7-10.

The howling of dogs, and the shouts of the hunters, are represented as filling the wild animal with dismay, and as harassing him as he attempts to escape:

Terrors alarm him on every side,

And harass him at his heels, ch. xviii. 11.

While spent with hunger and fatigue, he is entangled in the spread nets, and becomes an easy prey for the hunter:

His strength shall be exhausted by hunger,

And destruction shall seize upon his side

It shall devour the vigor of his frame.

The customs of the pastoral life, one of the chief employments of early ages, are often referred to; ch. i. 3, 16, xlii. 12.

He shall never look upon the rivulets —

The streams of the valleys— of honey and butter, cb. xx. 17.

When I washed my steps with cream,

And the rock poured me out rivers of oil. ch xxix. 6.

Pioucrhing with oxen is mentioned, ch. i. 14. So also ch. xxxi.

If my land cry out against me.

And the furrows likewise complain;

If I have eaten its fruits without payment,

And extorted the living of its owners;

Let thistles grow up instead of wheat,

And noxious weeds instead of barley, ch. xxxi. 38-40.

The cultivation of the vine and the olive, and the pressure of grapes and olives, is mentioned •

He shall cast his unripe fruit as the vine,

And shed his blossoms like the olive, ch. xv. 33.

They reap their grain in the field [of others],

And they gather the vintage of the oppressor, ch. xxiv. 6.

They cause them to express oil within their walls; They tread their wine-presses, and yet they suffer thirst.

ft is remarkable that in the book of Job there is no mention of the palm, the pomegranate, or any species of flowers. In a country like Arabia, where the date now is so important an article of food, it would have been reasonable to anticipate that there would have been some allusion to it. Little is known, from what is said, of the implements of husbandry, and nothing forbids us to suppose that they were of the rudest sort.

From the earliest period in the East the mode of travelling to any distance appears to have been by caravans, or companies. Two objects seem to have been contemplated by this in making long journeys across pathless deserts that were much infested by robbers; the one was the purpose of self-defence, the other mutual accommodation. For the purposes of those travellii^ companies, camels are admirably adapted by nature, alike from their ability to bear burdens, from the scantiness of food which they require, and for their being able to travel far without water. Caravans are first mentioned in Gen. xxxvii. 25, " And they sat down to eat bread, and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and behold a company of Ishmaelites came from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery, and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt." A beautiful notice of this mode of travelling occurs in Job (vi. 15-20), as being common in his time:

My brethren are faithless as a brook,

Like the streams of the valley that pass away;

Which are turbid by means of the [melted] ice.

In which the snow is hid [by being dissolved].

In the time when they become warm they evaporate.

When the heat cometh, they are dried up from their place;

The channels of their way wind round about;

They go into nothing, and are lost.

The caravans of Tenia look;

The travelling companies of Sheba expect to see them.

They are ashamed that they have relied on them,

They come even to the place, and are confounded.

Ther*. is, in one place in Job, a slight intimation that runners or carriers were employed to carry messages when extraordinary speed was demanded, though there is no evidence that this was a settled custom, or that it was regulated by law:

And my days are swifter than a runner;

They flee away, and they see no good. ch. ix. 25.

Connected with the subject of travelling, we may remark, that the art of making light boats or skiffs from reeds appears to have been known, though there is no mention of ships, or of distant navigation:

They pass on like the reed-skiffs;

As the eagle darting on its prey. ch. ix. 26.

There are in the book of Job frequent allusions to weapons of war, and to modes of attack and defence, such as to show that the subject had attracted much attention, and that war then was by no means unknown. In the poem we find the following allusions to the weapons used, and to the methods of attack and defence.

For the arrows of the Almighty are within me,

Their poison drinketh up my spirit;

The terrors of God set themselves in array against me. ch. vi. 4.

He runneth upon him with outstretched neck, With the thick bosses of his shields, ch. xv. 26.

To the methods of attack, and the capture of a walled town:

His archers came around me;

He transfixed my reins, and did not spare;

My gall hath he poured out upon the ground.

He breaketh me with breach upon breach;

He rusheth upon me like a mighty man. ch. xvi. 12-14.

To the iron weapon and the bow of brass

He shall flee from the iron weapon,

But the bow of brass shall pierce him through, ch. xx. 24.

To the works cast up by a besieging army for the annoyance of a city by their weapons of war:

His troops advance together against me;

They throw up their way against me,

And they encamp round about my dwelling, ch. xix. 12.

In this connection, also, should be mentioned the sublime description of the war-horse in ch. xxxix. 19, seq. The horse was undoubtedly used in war, and a more sublime description of this animal caparisoned for battle, and impatient for the contest, does not occur in any language:

Hast thou given the horse his strength?

Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?

Dost thou make him to leap as the locust?

How terrible is the glory of his nostrils!

He paweth in tJie valley; he exulteth in his strength;

He goeth forth into the midst of arms.

He laugheth?t fear, and is nothing daunted;

And he turneth not back from the sword.

Upon him rattleth the quiver;

The glittering spear and the lance.

In his fierceness and rage he devoureth the ground,

And will no longer stand still when the trumpet sounds.

When the trumpet sounds, he saith, 'Aha I'

And from afar he snuftetb the battle —

The war-cry of the princes, and the battle-shout.

The references to zoology in this book, which are numerous, and which show that the habits of many portions of the animated creation had been observed with great care, may be ranked under the heads of insects, reptiles, birds, and beasts.

1. Of insects, the only two that are mentioned are the spider and the moth:

And his trust shall be the building of the spider.

He shall lean upon his dwelling, and it shall not stand;

Behold, in his servants he putteth no confidence,

And his angels he chargeth with frailty;

How much more true is this of those who dwell in houses of clay,

Whose foundation is in the dust!

He buildeth his house like the moth,

Or like a shed which the watchman maketh. ch. xxvii. 18.

2. Of reptiles, we find the asp and the viper mentioned:

He shall suck the poison of asps;

The vipers tongue shall destroy him. ch xx 16.

3. The birds or fowls that are mentioned in this book, are much more numerous. They are the following, nearly all so mentioned as to show that their habits had been the subject of careful observation.

The path thereto no bird knovveth,

And the vnlliire's evn Imth not seen it. ch. xxviii. 7.

Who provideth for the raven his food,

When his young ones cry unto God,

And wander for lack of food? cli. xxxviii. 41.

The stork and the ostrich:

A wing of exulting fowls moves joyfully!

Is it the wing and j>lumage of the stork?

For she leaveth her eggs upon the ground.

And upon the dust she warmeth them,

And forgetteth that her foot may crush them.

And that the wild beast may break them.

She is hardened towards her young, as if they were not hers;

In vain is her travail, and without solicitude;

Because God hath withheld wisdom from her.

And hath not imparted to her understanding.

In the time when she raiseth herself up on high,

She laugheth at tlie horse and his rider, oh. xxxix. 13-18.

Is it by thy understanding that the hawk flieth.

And spreadeth his wings toward the south?

Is it at thy command that the eagle raounteth up,

And that he buildeth his nest on high?

He inhabiteth the rock and abideth there —

Upon the crag of the rock, and the high fortress.

From thence he spieth out his prey.

His eyes discern it from afar.

His young ones greedily gulp down blood;

And where the slain ore, there is he. ch. xxxix. 26-30.

4. The beasts that are mentioned are, also, quite numerous, and the description of some of them constitutes the most magnificent part of the poem. The descriptions of the various animals are also more minute than any thing else referred to, and but a few of them can be copied without transcribing whole chapters. The beasts referred to are the following.

The lion: The roaring of the lion, and the voice of the fierce lion [are silenced], And the teeth of young lions are broken out. The old lion perishes for want of prey, And the whelps of the lioness are scattered abroad, ch. iv. 10, 11.

Doth the wild ass bray in the midst of grass? Or loweth the ox over his fodder.? ch. vi. 5.

Who hath sent forth the wild ass free? Or who hath loosed the bonds of the wild ass:' Whose home I have made the wilderness, And his dwellings the barren land.

He scorneth the uproar of the city;

The cry of the driver he heedeth not.

The range of the mountains is his pasture:

He searchelh after every green thing, ch. xxxix. 5-3.

But now they who are younger than I have me in derision, Whose fathers I would have disdained to set with the dogs of my flock

I am become a brother to the jackal,

The mountain-goat and the hind:

Knowest Ihou the time when the wild goats of the rock bring forth?

Or canst tliou observe the birth- throes of the hind.''

Canst thou number the months that they fulfil.'

Knowest thou the season when they bring forth.?

They bow themselves; they give birth to their young;

They cast forth their sorrows.

Their young ones increase in strength,

They grow up in the wilderness.

They go from them, and return no more. ch. xxxix. 1-4

Will the unicorn be willing to serve thee?

Will he abide through the night at thy crib.'

Wilt thou bind him with his band to the furrow?

And will he harrow the valleys after thee?

Wilt thou trust him because his strength is great?

Or wilt thou commit thy labor to him?

Wilt thou have confidence in him to bring in thy grain?

Or to gather it to thy threshing-floor? ch. xxxix 9-12,

The war-horse, in a splendid passage already quoted, ch. xxxix. 19-25. And, finally, the behemoth or hippopotamus, and the leviathan or crocodile, in ch. xl. 15-24, xli. — perhaps the most splendid descriptions of animals to be found any where in poetry. For the nature and habits of the animals there described, as well as of those already referred to, the reader is referred to the Notes,

Such is a mere reference to the various topics of science and the arts referred to in the book of Job. Though brief, yet they furnish us with an invaluable account of the progress which society had then made; and in order to obtain an estimate of the state of the world on these subjects at an early period, there is no better means now at command than a careful study of this book. The scene of the book is laid in the vicinity of those portions of the earth which had made the greatest progress in science and the arts, and from this poem we may learn with considerable accuracy, probably, what advances had then been made in Babylon and in Egypt.

§ 9. Exegetical helps to the hook of Job.

The Vulgate, Septuagint, Syriac, and the Chaldee Paraphrase. For the general character of these versions, and their value in interpreting the Old Testament, see Introduction to Isaiah, § 8. Of the book of Job, the Vulgate is, in general, a very fair and correct version. The translation of the Septuagint is much inferior to what it is on the Pentateuch, and some of the other books of the Bible, though superior to the translation of Isaiah. There are various attempts at explanation of difficulties in it, and statements of things ^^ facts, for which there is no authority in the original — showing that if these were inserted by the translators themselves, there was an effort to make it as clear as possible. Whether these, however, were inserted by the translators, or have been interpolated by later hands, it is not easy now to determine. The same attempt at explanation occurs, but much more frequently, in the Targum, or Chaldee Paraphrase. In that work, however, this is much more excusable than in what was designed as a strict translation, for the word Targum {w^yy^, interpretation, translation, explanation of one language by another) will admit with propriety considerable latitude of explanation in the attempt to render a work from one language into another. See Buxtorf, Lex. Chald. Talmud. The old Syriac version is literal, and, so far as I can judge, is incomparably the best ancient version of the Scriptures which has been made. Its aid is of great value in the exposition of the Bible.

Abraham Ben Juda, published under the name of cp^ "''mnn, i. e. Compositiones CollectancB, a commentary on the Prophets, Megilloth, and Hagiographa, collected chiefly from Jarchi, Aben-Ezra, and Levi Ben Gersom. 1593 and 1612. fol.

Abraham Ben Meir, Aben-Esrae, Commentary on Job. Found in the Rabbinic editions of the Bible, Venice, 1525, 1526, Basle, 1618, 1619, and Amsterdam, 1724. ' In multifarious erudition, nnd accurate knowledge of the Hebrew language, and in a happy tact of hitting the sense of his author, Aben-Ezra greatly surpasses all his contemporaries.' Rosenmiiller. He has made much use of the Arabic language; but on account of his conciseness, he is often obscure.

Abraham Ben Mardochai Perizol, Commentary on Job in the Bible published at Venice, 1517, and Amsterdam, 1724.

Isaac Cohen, Ben Schelomoh, Commentary on Job with the Hebrew text, Constantinople, 1545.

Isaac Ben Scbelomoh Jabez, who lived at Constantinople in the 16th century, also published a commentary on Job, inscribed rx"-i-i •illl', ' The fear of the Almighty/ which is found in the edition of the Bible at Amsterdam, 1724.

Levi Ben Gerschom, born 1288, died 1370. In 1326 he wrote a commentary on Job, which was first published in 1477. It was republished at Naples in 1487, and is found in the Rabbinical Bibles. This is the most copious and clear of the Rabbinical coiumentaries. He gives an explanation of the words and phrases in the book, and accompanies it with a paraphrase.

Meir Ben Isaac Arama, born 1492, died at Thessalonica (556 He wrote a commentary on Job called nT^x n^x^s, ' Illustrating Job,' which was published in fol. at Thessalonica, in 1516, and subsequently at Venice, 1567 and 1603.

Moseh Alscheh, of Galilee. He died about 1601. He wrote a commentary on Job, called ppln?2 npbn, ' The Portion of the Legislator.' It was published at Venice, 1603-4. Again in 1722 and 1725.

Moses Nachmanides. He lived in the 13th century. A com mentary of his on Job is found in the Rabbinical Bible, Venice, 1517, and Amsterdam, 1724.

Obadiah Ben Jacob Sphorno. He wrote a commentary on Job with the title, p"i:J liS^JJ'o, ' The Judgment of the Just.' Venice, 1590, and Amsterdam, 1724.

Scbelomoh Jarchi Ben Jizchak, commonly called Rasche. He lived in Campania in the 11th century. His commentary on Job, and on the other books of the Old Testament, is found in the Rabbinical Bible published at Venice and Amsterdam. This work of Jarchi is of great authority among the Hebrews. He has collected and preserved most of the interpretations handed down by tradition.

Scbelomoh Ben Melech. He lived at Constantinople in the 16th century. He published a commentary on the whole of the Old Testament under the title of "^Sl^ hb^^, ' Perfection of Beauty. Amsterdam, 1661 and 1663, fol. In this work he was much aided by the celebrated David Kimchi.

Schimeon Ben Zemach Duran, a Spanish Jew of the 15th century. He wrote a commentary on Job called as'dJia im.s, ' Loving Judgment.' Venice, 1590-4.

Catena in beatissimum Job absolutissima e xxiv Grjeciae doctorum explanationibus, contexta a Paulo Comitolo Perusiano. Lyons, 1586, Venice, 1587.

The same published under the title of Catena Graecorum Patrum in beatum Job, etc., by Niceta. He revised the work and amended it, and greatly increased it. This was published under the care of P. Junius, Royal Librarian, in London, 1637, fol.

Ephrem the Syrian. Commentary, or Scholia on Job, in Syriac. Found in his works.

Jerome. Commentary found in his works. It is of very little value. The principles of interpretation are fanciful. Jerome held that Job was a type of Christ; that the land of Uz represents the Virgin Mary; that his seven sons were the seven-form spirit of grace; that his daughters were the law, the prophets, and the gospel; that the sheep represented the church, and the camels the depravity of the Gentiles; the oxen, which are clean animals, represent the Jews! Notes on ch. i. 6.

Augustine. Found in his works.

Thomae De Vio Caietani (Cardinal and Bishop) Commentarii in Librum Jobi, Rome, 1535, fol. Cardinal Cajetan was ignorant of the Hebrew language, but a man of distinguished talent. Had he been as much acquainted with the Hebrew, says Rosenmiiller, as he was distinguished for genius and the power of judgment, he would have greatly excelled all who went before him in the explication of Job.

Augustini Steuchi, Enarrationes in Librum Jobi. Venice, 1567. He was well acquainted with the Hebrew and Chaldee languages.

Cypriani De Huerga, Commentaria in xviii. priora Capita Jobi. 1582, fol.

Didaci De Zuniga, Commentaria in Librum Jobi. Rome, 1591. This professes to explain and reconcile the Hebrew, Latin Vulgate, and Septuagint.

Liber Job paraphrastice explicatus a Joanne a Jesu Maria. Rome, 1611.

Jacobi Jansonii, Enarrationes in propheticiim Librum Job. 1623, 1643, fol.

Gasparis Sanctii, in Librum Job commentarii cum Paraphrasi 1625, fol. Lyons. 1712, Leipsic.

Jobi brevi commentario et Metaphrasi poetica illustratus, Scripsit Franciscus Vavassor. Paris, 1638.

II Libro de Giobbe dal testo ebreo in versi Italiani dalP Giacinto Ceruti. Rome, 1773.

Victorini Strigellii, Liber Job, ad Ebraicam veritatem recognitus, et Argumentis atque Scholiis illustratus. 1566, 1571.

Roberti Rolloci (a minister at Edinburgh) commentarius in Jobum. Geneva, 1610.

Explications sur le livre de Job, Pseaumes, Proverbes, Ecclesiaste, et Cantique, par Jean Diodati. Geneva, 1638.

Exposition of the Book of Job, by George Abbott. London, 1640.

Abbott's Paraphrase of the Book of Job. 1640, 4to. It is form ed on the basis of the English version, and contains no notes.

Christophori SchuUeti, Analysis typica concionum habitarum in Job, etc. 1647, fol.

Joh. Cocceii, Commentarius in Librum Jobi. 1644, fol. ' A diffuse work, and filled with numerous disputations merely theological.' Roscnmiillcr.

Ed. Leigh, Annotations on the five poetical Books of the Old Testament. London, 1657, fol.

Exposition of the Book of Job, being the sum of 316 Lectures, by George Hutcheson (of Edinburgh). London, 1669, fol.

Caryl's Exposition of the Book of Job, two vols. fol. 1669. This work was originally published in six vols. 4to. " The author was a respectable scholar, a useful preacher, and an exemplary man. He was a non-conformist minister. He was concerned in an English- Greek Lexicon." The work is too voluminous to be much consulted, or to be generally useful.

Sebast. Schmidii in Librum Jobi Commentarius, etc. 1670, ] 680, 1690, 1705. Commended by Schultens for the careful comparison of the different versions, the accurate examination of words, and the clearness of the method. There is, however, too constant a reference to theological questions debated in the time of the author between the Lutherans and the Reformed.

Theod. Antonis (a Dutch commentator) on Job. Frankfort, 1702. He holds that the book of Job is a representation or a type of the church in its afflictions and persecutions.

A Paraphrase on the Book of Job, by Richard Blackmore. London, 1700.

Das Buch Hiob aus dem Hebraischen Grundtext aufs neue getreulich ins Teusche ubersetzt u. s. w, von Renato Andrea Kortiim. Leips. 1708.

Pauli Egerdi, Erlauterung des Buches Hiob, u. s. w. von Joh. Hein. Michaelis. 1716. Published after the death of the author.

Joh. Hen. Michaelis, Notae uberiores in Librum Jobi, in vol. ii. of his Annotations on the Hagiographa. Halle, 1720.

Jobi Physica Sacra, oder Hiobs Naturwissenschaft verglichen rnit der heutigen, von Joh. Jac. Scheutzer. 1721. The author sometimes attributes views of science to the speakers in the book of Job which there is no certain evidence that they possessed. Still the work of Scheutzer contains much that is valuable. It extends to the whole Bible, and is in 8 vols. fol. in Latin and German, with numerous valuable plates.

Theodore de Hase, de Leviathan Jobi et Ceto Jonae. Bremen, 1723, 8vo.

Le Livre de Job, traduit en Francois, sur 1' original Hebrew, par Theod. Criusoz. Rotterdam, 1729.

Veteris Testamenti Libri Hagiographi, ex translatione Joannis Clerici. Amsterdam, 1731, fol. He regards the book of Job as written after the return from the Babylonish exile.

Annotations on the Book of Job and the Psalms, by Thomas Fenton. London, 1732.

Joh. Adolf Hofifmaus Neue Erklarung des Buchs Hiob u. s. w. Hamburgh, 1734. This work professes to illustrate Job from the remains of antiquity, and from the Oriental philosophy. The author found deep mysteries in the book, and is much addicted to ihe allegorical mode of interpretation. The work is now of little value.

Samuel Wesley Dissertationes et conjecturae in Librum Jobi, tabulis geographicis et figuris aenis illustratee. London, 1736, fol.

Liber Jobi, cum nova versione, ad Hebraeum fontem, et commentario perpetuo, in quo veterum et recentiorum interpretum cogitata praecipua expenduntur; genuinus sensus ad priscum linguae genium indagatur, atque ex filo, et nexu universo, argumenti nodus intricatissimus evolvitur. Curavit et editit, Albertus Schultens. Ludg. Batav. 1737. The same work abridged by Richard Grey, London, 1741, 8vo.; and a more full abridgment, Halae, 1773, 4, Svo, This great work of Schultens on Job deserves the first place, on many accounts, in the list of those illustrative of this book. It is the most elaborate commentary which has been published, and contains a full statement of the opinions which have been entertained by critics on different parts of the work. Schultens brought to the interpretation of the book of Job a more accurate and extensive knowledge of the Hebrew and Arabic than was possessed by any one who preceded him in this department of labor. The leading faults of the work are, a too minute and tedious detail of the opinions of other commentators — amounting in many instances to a statement of more than twenty opinions on the meaning of a verse or phrase, and, in determining the meaning of Hebrew words, too great a proneness to rely on etymological conjectures.

Liber Jobi in versiculas metrice divisus, cum versione Alberti Schultens Notisque ex ejus Commentario excerptis. Richard Grey. London, 1741.

Recht beleuchtetes Buch Hiobs, mit vielen dabey gemachten neuen Entduckungen, nothigen Anmerkungen und erbaulichen Nutzanwendungen. Herausgegeben von Jacob Koch. 1743, 44, 47.

Kleine Geographisch-historische Abhandlungen zur Erlauterung einiger Stellen Mosis und voniehmlich des ganzen Buchs Hiob. von Jac Koch. 1747.

Costard's Observations on the Book of Job. 1747, 8vo.

A Dissertation on the Book of Job, &c., by John Garnett, D. D., quarto, London, 1749. According to Garnett, the book of Job is a drama, or allegory; the Babylonish captivity is the main subject of the allegory; the three friends who came to visit Job are the children of Edom coming to condole with the Hebrews in their captivity. The work is of very little value.

Das richte Gericht in dem kurz und verstandlich erklarten. ubersetzten und zurgliederten Buch Hiob u. s. w. durch Christoph Friedrich Oetinger. 1743.

Elihu, or an inquiry into the principal scope and design of the Book of Job, by Walter Hodges, D. D. London, quarto, 1750. According to Dr. Hodges, the book of Job relates to patriarchal times, and the design is to give a summary of the patriarchal religion. The particular purpose of the book, according to the view of this author, is, to reveal and establish the doctrine of justification. Job was a type of the Saviour, and by Job's friends being directed to oifer sacrifices for themselves, is " intimated that each national church ought to have an independent power in such matters." In the opinion of this author, Elihu was the Son of God himself! The nature and value of the work may be easily seen from these views. The author was a divine of the Hutchinsouian school.

A commentary on the Book of Job, in which is inserted the Hebrew text and English Translation: with a Paraphrase from the 3d verse of the 3d chapter to the 7th verse of the 42d chapter. In two vols. 4to. By Leonard Chappelow, D. D., Arabic Professor in the University of Cambridge. Cambridge, 1752.

Tlie Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated, by Bishop Warburton. 175S. In this great wi rk there is an examination of the book of Job which has attracted much attention on account of the learn^ ing and talent of the author. The theory of Warburton is, thai the book of Job is a drama; that it relates to the Jews in the time of the captivity; that it was written some time between the return and tlie thorough settlement of the Jews in their own land; that the drama is allegorical in its character; that the character of Job is designed to represent the Jewish people; that his wife is a representation of the heathen influence which led the Hebrews on their return to marry ' strange wives;' that the three friends of Job represent the three capital enemies of the Jews who hindered their efforts to rebuild the temple on their return from Babylon, Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshem; that under the character of Elihu the writer or author of the poem is himself designated. Div. Lega. B. vi. § 2. After the view which Bishop Warburton gives of the Book of Job, there is more real point and force than he himself intended in what he says in a letter to his friend Dr. Ilurd. " Poor Job! It was his eternal fate to be persecuted by his friends. His three friends passed sentence of condemnation upon him, and he has been executed in effigy ever since. He was lirst bound to the stake by a long catena of Greek Fathers; then tortured by Pineda; then strangled by Caryl; and afterwards cut up by Wesley and anatomized by Garnett. I only acted the tender part of his wife, and was for making short work with him. But he was ordained, I think, by a fate like that of Prometheus, to lie still upon his dunghill, and to have his brains sucked out by owls."

An Essay towards a new English version of the Book of Job from the original Hebrew, with a commentary, and some account of his life. By Thomas Heath, Esq., of Exeter. Quarto. London, 1756. There is little in this work that can now be regarded as of value. The knowledge of Hebrew by the author was quite limited, and the notes throw little light on the meaning of the text.

A Critical Dissertation on the Book of Job, by Charles Peters, A. M. London, 1751, quarto. This work is designed particularly to examine the theory of Bishop Warburton; to vindicate the antiquity of the book; to show that the passage in ch. xix. 25-27 refers to the resurrection and the future judgment; and that the doctrine of the future state was the popular belief among the Hebrews. It is a work of considerable learning and value. It contains much valuable matter, though all its reasonings may not be satisfactory.

Das Buch Hiob, in einer poetischen Uebersetzung nach Schultens Erklarung mit Anmerkungen, von Simon Grynaeus. 1767.

Kurze doch griindliche Erklarung des Buchs Hiob, u. s. w. von

Metaphrais libri Jobi, sive Job nietricus, vario carminis genere, primo ejulans, post jubilans, interprete Jo. Georg. Meintel. 1775.

Joa. Jac. Reiske conjecturae in Jobum et Proverbia Salomonis. Leips. 1779. He takes great liberty with the Hebrew text, trans- (josing, changing, or rejecting v»'hole verses at pleasure

Das Buch Hiob zum allgemeinen Gebrauch, von Heinr. Sander Leips, 1780, 8vo,

Hiob, aus dem Hebraischen Original neu iibersetzt uiid mit erklarenden Anmerkungen versehen, zum allgemeinen Gebrauch, von €hr Dan. Kessler. Tubingen, 1784, 8vo.

Job oversat [with brief critical and philological remarks], by And. Heins. In the Dutch language. Amsterdam, 1794, 8vo.

Garden's improved version of the Book of Job. 1796, 8vo.

The same work translated into German by J. P. Berg. Leips. 1797, Svo.

Hiob, iibersetzt ^ ein Versuch von Samuel Christian Pape. Gotlinjren, 1797, Svo.

Das Buch Hiob metrisch ubersetzt. Ein Versuch von A. S. Clock. Ratzeburg, 1799, Svo.

Exegetische und kritische versuche uber die schwersten steilen des Biichs Hiob. Leips. 1801, 8vo.

Discourses and Dissertations on the Scriptural Doctrine ot' Atonement and Sacrifice. By William Magee, D. D. 1801. In this important work on the atonement, there is a very valuable dissertation on the book of Job. Bishop Magee supposes that Moses was the author, or that it was written by Job himself, or by some contemporary, and that it fell into the hands of Moses, and was adopted by him as an important help to encourage the Israelites in their trials.

Die heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments, zweiten Theils. dritten Bandes zweite Haifte. welche das Buch Hiob euthalt. von D. Brentano und Th. A. Dereser. Frankfort, 1804, 8vo.

Hiob. Ein religioses Gedicht Aus dem Hebraischen neu ijbersetzt, gepriift und erlaubert von Matthias Heinr. Stuhlmann. Hamburg, 1804, 8vo.

Stock's Book of Job; a new version, with Notes. 1805, 4to. See this work examined with great severity in Magee on the Atonement.

Jobus Latine vertit, et annotatione perpetua, illustravit, Ern._ Frid. Car. Rosonmi'iller, Ling. Arab, in Acad. Leips. Prof Leips. 18C6. The commentary of Rosenmiiller is, on the whole, probably the most valuable of all the expositions of this book. One who wishes to eiplain and uiuhrstand the book of Job will find more valuable materials collected there than in any other of the commentaries. Nothing is passed over without an attempt at explanation; and nothing collected by his predecessors that would throw light on the meaning of the book, seems to have been unnoticed by him. For the most part, also, the exposition is distinguished by sound sense, by correct and sober views, as well as by eminent learning.

The Book of Job, translated by Eliz. Smith. 1810, 8vo. "This work was completed before the twenty-sixth year of the authoress, with little help except from Parkhurst's Lexicon, and the revision of her friend Dr. Randolph, who annexed to it a few critical notes. She left a fine example to her sex; and though self-taught, with little access to books, she left behind her some monuments of learning and piety calculated to make many blush for their own idleness." \Vcmyss.

The Book of Job literally translated from the original Hebrew, and restored to its natural arrangement, wit!i notes critical and illustrative, and an introduction on its scene, scope, language, author, and object. By John Mason Good, F. R. S., &c. J 8 12. The 'Introduction' by Dr. Good is very valuable. In the Notes there is much learning, but it is more extensive than accurate. The translation cannot be relied on as correct. The work, however, is a valuable contribution to sacred literature, and deserves a place in every theological library.

Das Buch Hiob, aus dem Grundtext metrisch iibersetzt und erlautert von J. Rud. Scharer. Bern, 1818, 8vo.

Das Buch Hiob, aus dem Hebraischen metrisch ijbersetzt und durch kurze philologische Anmerkungen erlautert von L. F Melsheimer. Mannheim, 1823.

Buch Hiob. Uebersetzung und Anslegung, von D. Friedrich Wilhelm Carl Umbreit, Professor an der Universitat zu Heidelberg. Heidelberg, 1824, 8vo. This is the production of an acute and sharp-sighted critic. The translation is very accurate, and the Notes, though brief, are very valuable. The Introduction is less brief than is desirable, and the views maintained in it are not such as seem to me to be correct. Trans. Edin Bib. Cab, vs. 16, 19.

A new translation of the Book of Job, with an Introduction and Notes chiefly explanatory. By George R. Noyes. Cambridge, 1827; 2d ed. Boston, 1838. This is an elegant and a very accurate translation. Dr. Noyes is an Unitarian, but neither in this work nor in the translation of Isaiah, have I observed any attempt to accommodate the translation to the views of that denomination. His aim has evidently been to give the exact sense of the original, and this, so far as I can judge, has been accomplished with great accuracy. The Notes are very brief, but they are pithy and valuable. The Introduction is less valuable than the other parts of the work.

The Book of the Patriarch Job, translated from the original Hebrew, as nearly as possible, in the terms and style of the authorized English version, to which is prefixed an introduction on the History, Times, Country, Friends, and Book of the Patriarch, &c. By Samuel Lee, D. D., etc. London, 1837. This work is not what might have been expected from the learning and reputation of Prof. Lee. It abounds with Arabic learning, which is scattered with ostentatious profuseness through the volume, but which often contributes little to the elucidation of the text. It is designed for the cr'itical scholar rather than the general reader.

Job and his times, or a picture of the Patriarchal age during the period between Noah and Abraham, as regards the state of morality, arts and sciences, manners and customs, &c., and a new version of that most ancient poem, accompanied with Notes and Dissertations. The whole adapted to the English reader. By Thomas Wemyss, author of Biblical Gleanings, Symbolical Dictionary, and other works. London, 1839. This is designed to be a popular work. It is not so much of the nature of a commentary as a collection of fragments and brief essays on various topics referred to in the book of Job. It is chiefly valuable from its illustration of the religion of the time of Job, the arts and sciences, the manners and customs, &/C. It lacks lucid arrangement, and furnishes comparatively little illustration of the difficulties of the text.

A new Translation and Exposition of the very ancient Book of Job, with Notes Explanatory and Philological. By the R&)?. John Fry, B. A, London, 1827. 8vo.

(1.) Job opens the discussion by cursing his birth-day, and by a bitter complaint of his calamity, ch. iii.

V. The close of the discussion, chs. xxxviii.-xlii. 1-6 (I.) The speech of the Almighty, chs. xxxviii.-xli. (2.) The response and penitent confession of Job, ch. xlii. 1-6.

Brief history of Job; his piety and prosperity, vs. 1—5. The tribunal of the Almighty, and the assembling there of the sons of God. Satan appears among them, ver. 6. The inquiry of the Almighty of Satan where he had been, and his answer, ver. 7. His remark respecting the fidelity of Job, ver. 8. Satan insinuates that all his fidelity is the mere result of selfishness, produced by the favors that God had bestowed on him, and that if his blessings were taken away he would curse God to his face, vs. 10, 11. The Almighty consents to tlie trial of Job, only making it a condition that his person should not be touched, ver. 12, and Satan goes out from the presence of Jehovah to afflict Job. The calamities that came upon the family of Job, vs. 13—19. Job's deep affliction, but perfect resignation, vs. 20 22.

T^HERE was a man in the -^ land of " Uz, whose name was Job; * and that man was per-

1 Moses is thought to have wrote the Book

There was a man. This has all the appearance of being a true history. Many have regarded the whole book as a fiction, and have supposed that no such person as Job ever lived. But the book opens with the appearance of reality; and the express declaration that there was such a man, the mention of his name and of the place where he lived, show that the writer meant to affirm that there was in fact such a man. On this question see the Introduction, § 1. IT In the land of Uz. On the question where Job lived, see also the Introduction, § 2. IT Whose name was Job. The name Job (Heb. ni'^i?, Gr. 'J(t)l3) means properly, according to Gesenius, one persecuted, from a root C^"!^) meaning to be an enemy to any one, to persecute, to hate. The primary idea, according to Gesenius, is to be sought in breathing, blowing, or puffing at or upon any one, as expressive of anger or hatred, Germ. Anschnauhen. Eichnorn (Einleit. § 638. 1,) supposes

feet and upright, and one that * feared God, and eschewed evil.