The general impression designed to be secured by this whole address is that of awe, reverence, and submission. The general thought is, that God is supreme; that he has a right to rule; that there are numberless things in his government which are inexplicable by human wisdom; that it is presumptuous in man to sit in judgment on his doings; and that at all times man should bow before him with profound adoration. It is remarkable that in this address, the Almighty does not refer to the main point in the controversy. He does not attempt to vindicate his government from the charges brought against it of inequality, nor does he refer to the future state as a place where all these apparent inequalities will be ydjusted. For the reasons of this, see the remarks at the close of the Notes on ch. xli.
V. The whole work now closes, ch. xlii. Job is humbled and penitent. His confession is accepted, and his general course is approved. His three friends are reprimanded for the severity of their judgment on him, and he is directed to make intercession for tiiem. His calamities are at an end, and he is restored to double his former prosperity, and is permitted to live long in affluence and respectability. Thus God shows himself in the end to be the friend of the righteous; and thus the great object of the trial is fully secured — by showing that there is true virtue which is not based on selfishness, and that real piety will bear any trial to which it can be subjected.
^ 6. The canonical authority and inspiration of the hook.
The canonical authority of the book of Job, or its right to a place anwng the inspired Scriptures, is determined on the same principles as the other books of the Old Testament. The argument for this rests mainly on two considerations, which have generally been regarded as satisfactory by those who hold to the divine mission of the Saviour and the inspiration of the apostles. The first is, that it was found in the canon of the Jew^ish Scriptures to which the Saviour gave his sanction as inspired; and the otlier is, that it is quoted in the New Testament as of divine authority.
In regard to the first of these, there can be- no doubt that it existed among the books which were regarded by the Hebrews as inspired. It has the same evidence of this kind which exists in favor of any one of the books of the Old Testament. There is the ■ime authority — arising from the opinions of the Jews, from the existence of manuscripts, from the ancient versions, from repeated quotations, from extended commentaries, and from the enumeration of the books of divine inspiration in the ancient catalogues — in favor of the book of Job, which there is for any one of the books of Moses or of the prophets. The argument from this source is thus stated by Wemyss: "The Seventy translated it about 2"/ 7 years before Christ; Josephus places it among the historica writings; Philo the Jew quotes a fragment of it; part of it is evidently imitated by Baruch; the subject of it is mentioned in the book of Tobit; and in the catalogue of Jewish canonical books, drawn up by Melito, Bishop of Sardis, near the end of the second century, we find it inserted after the Song of Songs, on the supposition that it was written by Solomon. Jerome introduced it into the Vulgate, and almost all the Fathers of the Church have quoted it. The Talmud places it after the book of Psalms, so that Jews and Christians equally acknowledge its canonicity." p. 6. It was in reference to this entire collection that the Saviour gave to the Jews of his time the direction, " Search the Scriptures." John v. 39. And it was of this entire collection that the apostle Paul said, "All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness." 2 Tim. iii. 16.
The other argument for the canonical authority and inspiration of the book of Job, is the fact that it is quoted in the New Testament. It is introduced by the same formula, and evidently with the belief that it sustains the same rank as the other books of the inspired volume. It is true that it is but twice quoted directly, but that is sufficient to show that the writers of the New Testament, in common with all the Jews, regarded it as of divine authority. The quotations in the New Testament are the following:
" He taketh the wise in their own craftiness,"
quoted in 1 Cor. iii. 19, where Paul introduces the quotation by the words, " It is written," agreeably to the common form of quoting from the other parts of Scripture. Job xxxix. 30:
" Her young ones suck up blood;
"And where the slain are, there is she," i. e. the eagle.
This is evidently referred to by the Saviour, Matth. xxiv. 28, " For wheresoever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered together," and Luke xvii. 37. It must, in candor, however, be admitted that the argument from this source rests mainly on the former passage, as the remark of the Saviour may have been merely proverbial, without any special reference to the book of Job. Besides these places, there are a few others in which there seems to be an allusion to Job, though not so manifest as to be regarded as intentional quotations. See James iv. 10, comp. Job xxii. 29; Rom. xi. 34, 35, comp. Job xv. 8; and 1 Pet. v. 6, comp. Job xxii. 29. It is once alluded to by Philo (§31), but is not referred to by Josephus. Eichhorn, Einleit. § 645.
But if the canonical authority and inspiration of the book of Job be admitted, still a most interesting question presents itself In what sense is it to be regarded as of divine oriorin? Are we to consider the whole of it as inspired? Are all the speeches made, and all the arguments used, and all the complainings uttered by Job, and all the views of science presented, to be regarded as the suggestions of the Holy Spirit? If this is not to be supposed, on what principles are we to be guided in determining what is of divine authority, and what not? And in what sense is the word inspiration to be used, as applied to those portions of the book 1 These questions, which probably occur to every reader of the book, and which create perplexity whenever they occur, make it necessary to offer a few suggestions in regard to its inspiration. The principles which are necessary to be understood in order to a correct interpretation of the book of Job, may be stated as follows:
(I.) In an inspired book there is an exact and infallible record of facts as they actually occur. Whether the record relates to the existence, perfections, and plans of God; to what he has done in the work of creation, providence, or redemption, or to his claims on mankind; whether to the existence and employments of angels, or to the creation, character, and destiny of man; and whether to the revolutions of kingdoms, or to the actions, words, feelings, and views of individual men, still the same principle exists in the case. The sole object is to secure a fair record; to state things as they are. The design of inspiration is not always to communicate new truth, or truth that was not or could not be otherwise known; it is to make a record that shall be free from all error, and shall preserve the remembrance of things as they actually exist. And so far as pertains to this principle, it is unnecessary to inquire whether inspiration is by immediate suggestion or by superintendence; the only essential thing is, that in an inspired work there is an exact and inf;illible statement of the truth which is professed to be recorded. As a matter of fact, in the volume of revelation, a large part of the truths are far above any power of man to discover them, and they were directly communicated to the speakers and writers by tlie Holy Spirit. In regard to all that is recorded in the Scriptures, it is to be held that the Holy Spirit so presided over the minds of the sacred writers, as to keep them from error, and to secure the exact record of such things as were necessary to be known to man.
In applying this principle to the book before us, the only thing which it is necessary to maintain is, that there is a correct record of events as they occurred to Job, and of the arguments of himself nnd his friends, and of the address of the Almighty. Whether f.ither he or his friends were inspired, is quite another question, and is to be determined by other considerations. Whether all wliich he said was true, or whether all or any thing which they advanced was correct, is not to be determined by the mere position that the hook is inspired.
(2.) It is to be admitted that there are in this book many things recorded which are in themselves wrong and false. It is not to be denied that Job uttered some sentiments which cannot be vindicated, and often manifested a spirit which was wrong. This is apparent not only from the contrariety of such sentiments and feelings toother parts of the Scriptures, but from the reproof of the Almighty himself at the close of the book. Nor can it be denied that the friends of Job uttered many erroneous sentiments, for their views are expressly condemned by God himself, ch. xlii. 7. Still, it is true that they utttred those sentiments, and that they entertained those opinions; and this is properly all that inspiration is responsible for. In the records of profane history there are often things occurring just of this character. There are many things recorded which were in themselves wrong, yet the record is correctly made; there are many sentiments expressed by various speakers which are wrong in spirit, and yet the record that such sentiments were uttered is true. AH that the fidelity of the historian is responsible for is the correctness of the record. He is not at all answerable for the propriety of the acts referred to, nor for the sentiments of the various speakers. If he gives a fair statement, he has done all that the world can demand of him as an historian — ^just as all that a painter can be required to do is to give a fair copy of his original. Whether that original be beautiful or otherv/ise, is quite another question. So in the matter before us, all that the inspired writer, whoever he may have been, is fairly responsible for, is the fairness and correctness of his record.
(3.) It is of great importance to preserve the record of things as they actually occurred, whether they were good or evil, right or wrong. This gives its value and importance to history; and this object is not unworthy of inspiration. We wish to know what the facts were; what were the opinions which prevailed; what were the sentiments expressed; what were the views of men on important subjects. Hence history has brought down to us many things that are in themselves of little value, or that cannot be depended on as Sfuides now, but which show what has been the progress of events So in the book before us, it was of great importance to show the opinions which prevailed in an early age of the world, and with the best opportunities for reflection, on a great and important question of the divine government. It will make us prize more highly the revelation which ice have on those points; and it will show us how much we are rccdhj indebted to revelation. The discussion in this book was on one of the most important points that can come before the mind of man. It is on a question which has occurred in all ages, and which has been every where examined. The inquiry why the good are afflicted, and why the wicked are prospered, is one that must come Ijcfore the minds of thinking men, and must present a great many difficulties. This question is discussed here under every conceivable advantage. It arose from a most interesting and afflicting case which had actually occurred. It was examined by men of age, experience, and wisdom; by men who could bring to bear on it the result of patient thought, and who were imbued with the wisdom of the ancients. The subject was never more fairly or fully examined; and nothing ever occurred that could do more to determine the just limits of the human powers on these great inquiries pertaining to the divine government.
(4.) In a book of revelation for the guidance of mankind, it iis important not only to preserve the memory of facts as they actually occurred, and to impart to men truths which the human mind could not originate; but to preserve, also, a correct record of the workings of the human mind in circumstances of trial and temptation. It is important not only to state in the abstract, and by clear propositions, what man is, but to show what he is by exhibiting him as placed in a great variety of situations, and by permitting us to see how he will feel, and speak, and act in such circumstances. We need to sefe what human nature is; how it developes itself in trying situations: how the general declarations which God makes about man are illustrated in his life; and especicdly, we want to see the effect of religion in subduing, calming, and elevating the soul, and in enabling it to bear trials and to meet with temptations. And for the same purpose, also, it is important to exhibit mind as it actually exists under the influence of religion — with the imperfections of our nature — with the impatience, restlessness, murmuring, and unguarded expressions which occur in times of calamity and trial. Even the eminent saint is not perfect in this life. Religion does not deliver him from all imperfection. It leaves the mind subject to conflict, anxiety, trouble; engaged in a fearful warfare with sin and temptation; liable to the outbreaks of impatience and munnurino;; suljject to the possibility of being thrown off the guard, and of saying things which will be subsequently the occasion of much regret. Now, as it is the design of revelation to exhibit religion not only in its precepts, doctrines, and commands, but as it actually exists in the mind and heart, it was important to furnish some actual illustrations of this in detail. For this purpose, nothing could be better adapted than to select just such a case as that of Job, and to exhibit him in a condition of most extraordinary trial. He possessed undoubted piety. He had made uncommon attainments in religion. He had been a man of calm judgment — of sober views — of eminent wisdom. His was a fair case, therefore, in which to show the workings of human nature even under the most favorable circumstances, and when the mind is imbued with religion. It was a case designed not to show what man ought to be, but what he is; and how much infirmity and passion may actually exist in the soul, even when imbued with the principles of piety. Much of this same thing also occurs in the Book of Psalms; and one of the principal things which give value to that inestimable part of the Scriptures is, that it so fully expresses the feelings of a pious man in a great variety of trying circumstances. Many of the expressions in the Psalms, as well as in the Book of Job, we are by no means to regard as the offspring of genuine religion, but as denoting what human nature is, even when the prevailing feelings are those of piety. Even in such a mind, there will be outbreakings of passion; improper murmuring; doubts about the safe condition of the soul; moments of darkness, when clear visions of the divine goodness will be withdrawn; and expressions of impatience, which will give occasion of regret in the subsequent life. Comp. Ps. cxvi. 11, Ixxiii. 1-15. To record these is not to express approbation of them; and the record may be a source of unspeakable consolation to those who are betrayed into similar expressions, as showing that their feelings do not demonstrate that they have no true religion. One of the principal excellencies of the Book of Job is, that it preserves just such a record, and that it shows what the human mind is, even under the prevalent ascendancy of religious feeling, when it is subjected to severe trials.
(5.) In order, then, to ascertain in this book what is right and what is wrong, a careful examination is necessary, in connexion with the other parts of the Bible. The views of the friends of Job, and the expressions of Job himself, must be carefully compared with the law of God, with the counsels and precepts elsewhere revealed, and with the nature of true religion as elsewhere exhibited. We are not to assume that all that Job said was right; nor are we to assume that we would have avoided the impatience and irreverence which he sometimes manifested. We are to compare the arguments of Job and his friends with the statements of truth elsewhere occurring in the Scriptures, and to place his feelings by the side of those of the only perfect man — the Lord Jesus. In him there was no impatience — no murmuring — no irreverence. In him was illustrated fully what religion, under the most trying circumstances, ought to be; in Job we see what, as human nature is constituted, it often is. With the New Testament in our hand, it is not difficult to form a correct estimate of what was wrong in the Patriarch of Uz; and we shall not find it difficult to determine what we ought to avoid when we are called to pass through similar trials.
(&) It is.not difficult, then, to determine the value of this book,
>T the place which it deserves to occupy in the sacred canon, l^, shows the following things: — (a) The operations of the human heart when under trial. (b) The real power of religion in restraining the mind, and in producing ultimately acquiescence in God. (c) It shows how far the human mind can go of itself, under the most favorable circumstances, in explaining the mysteries of the divine government, (d) It shows the necessity that truth should be revealed beyond what the human understanding has power itself to originate, to furnish support and consolation, (e) It shows the duty of perfect submission to the will of God, even when we cannot see the reason of his doings. In the works of creation and providence he has evinced so much wisdom and power, so much that surpasses even now all that science can do to explain it, so much that is every way superior to man, that we ought to have confidence in the wisdom of God in oil thingi^, and to believe that the great Governor of the universe is qualified for universal empire.
Various places have been assigned to the Book of Job in the ancient and modern arrangements. The place which it occupied at first in the Jewish canon is uncertain, for the ancient catalogues of the sacred books differ much Irom each other in regard to the place of this book. In that of Melito, it stands after the Canticles; in that of Origen, after Ezekiel; in that of Jerome, after the minor prophets. In Bava Bathra, c. L. f 14, b., the books of the Hagiographa follow each other in the following order: 1 Ruth, 2 Psalms, 3 Job, 4 the writings of Solomon, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, 5 Lamentations, &:-c. According to Elias Levita, the Masorites arranged the Hagiographa in the following order: I Chronicles, 2 Psalms, 3 Job, 4 Proverbs, 5 the five festival books. The order in the printed editions varies as much as in the catalogues. In the Bomberg edition, in 1521, it is placed between the book of Proverbs and Daniel; in the edition of Buxtorf, it is placed between Proverbs and Canticles. See Eichhorn, Einleit. § 645, Carpzov, Introd. in V. T. p. 31. The proper place for the book of Job, in order to estimate its real value and importance, is at the commencement of the Bible, or in the early part of the book of Genesis. There is reason to suppose that it is the oldest book in the world; and there is a moral certainty that it was penned before the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, and before, in fact, any of the revelations were given which now shed so much light on the path of man. In our estimation of its design, it should stand at the commencement of the volume of revealed truth, to show how little the human mind can discover in regard to the principles of the divine government, and the necessity of revelation. The reasonings of the sages of Arabia, in the earliest period of the world, demonstrated abundantly what the reasonings of the sages of Greece afterwards did — that man needed a revelation to acquaint him with the true principles of the divine administration.
§ 7. The patinarclial religion, as developed in the hook of Job.
On the supposition that this book was composed at the time supposed, then it is an invaluable document in regard to the nature of the patriarchal religion. We have comparatively few notices on that subject in the book of Genesis, and this volume supplies a chasm which it is of the greatest importance to fill up in order to understand the history of the world. We may suppose, without impropriety, that the mind of Job was imbued with the principles of religion, as then understood by the patriarchs; that he was acquainted with the traditions which had come down from more remote periods; that he was apprized of the revelations which had then been communicated to mankind; and that he practised the rites of religion which were then prevalent among the true worshippers of God. If this is so. then it will be of interest and importance to bring together, in a brief^ compass, some of the notices of the patriarchal religion scattered throughout this book.
(1.) The existence of one supreme God, the infinitely wise and glorious Creator of all things. In the entire book, God is spoken of as one, nor is there an intimation by any of the speakers that there is more than one God. There are no allusions to a good and an evil principle contending in the universe; nor any trace of the doctrine which subsequently became prevalent in the East, that such contending principles existed. No sentiments occur like those which were afterwards embodied in Persia respecting the existence and conflicts of Ormuzd and Ahriman (see Creuzer, Symbolik und Mythologie, Erster Band, 226, seq., and Neander, Geschichte, 2, a. 219, seq.), or what became subsequently the doctrine of the Manichaeans. The religion of the book of Job is throughout a pure theism. This fVict is remarkable, because the- subject of the controversy — the mingled good and evil in the world — was such as constituted the foundation of the argument for elualism subsequently in a considerable portion of the Oriental world.
The characteristics ascribed to God in this book are such as are every where attributed to him in tlie Bible, and are far above any conceptions which prevailed of him at any time among Pagan philosophers. He is almighty, ch. v. 9, vi, 4, ix. 5-12, et al. He is omniscient, ch. xi. 11, xxi. 22. He is ^oise, ch. xii. 13, xxiv. 1; inscrutable, ch. xi. 7-9, xxxvi. 26; invisible, ch. xi. 11. He is the Snpreinc Governor of the world, and the regtdcdor of its concerns, ch. V. 9-13, viii. 4-6. He is the Creator of all things, ch. iv. 17, x. 8-11, XXXV. 10, xxxviii. 4-10. He is perfectly pure and holy, ch. XV. 15, 16, xxv. 5, 6. He is eternal, ch. x. 5. He is a spiritual Being y ch, x. 4. He is gi-acious, and is ready to forgive sin to the penitent, ch. v. 17-27, xi. 13-19, xxii. 21-23, xxxiii. 23-28. He is n hearer of prayer, ch. xxxiii. 26, xii. 4, xxii. 27. He is the dispenser of life and death, ch. iv. 9, x. 12, xxxiii. 4. He commiinieates his icill by revelation to mankind, ch. iv. 12-17, xxxiii. 14- 17. In these and in numerous other passages in the book, the existence and attributes of the One Supreme God are stated with perhaps as much clearness as in any part of the Bible, and in a manner infinitely superior to any statements respecting the divine character and perfections in any other ancient books except those of the Scriptures.
(2.) The universe was created by this one great and glorious God. It was not the work of chance; it was not the creation of any inferior beings; it was not eternal. A single passage is all that is necessary to be referred to on this point — a passage of unequalled sublimity, ch. xxxviii. 4-11.
Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth.?
Declare, if thou hast understanding.
Who hath laid the measures thereof, if thou knowest ^
Or who hath stretclied the hne upon it?
Whereupon are tlie foundations thereof fastened.-'
Or who laid the corner-stone thereof,
When the morning stars sang together,
And all the sons of God shouted for joy.''
Or who shut up the sea with doors,
When it brake forth, as if it had issued out of the womb?
W^hen 1 made the cloud the garment thereof,
And thick darkness a swaddling-band for it,
And brake it up for my decreed place,
And said, " Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further;
And here shall thy proud waves be stayed.''"
(3.) He is the moral Governor of all his intelligent creatures, dispensing rewards and punishments according to their character. It is unnecessary to refer to particular passages demonstrating this, as the whole of the controversy in the book turns on it. Thefaet tliat God thus governs the universe, and that he punishes the evil and rewards the good, is assumed on both sides in the controversy, and is never called in question. The point of inquiry is. In what manner is it done? One of the parties maintains that the dispensations of God here are strictly according to human character, and that character may be fairly inferred from those dispensations; the other denies this, but maintains that there will be 'a future retribution, which will be strictly in accordance with justice. Comp. Notes on ch. xix. 23-27. Someiuhere, and somehmv, it seems to have been held by all parties, God would show himself the friend of the righteous and the punisher of the wicked.
(4.) The existence of angels, or a superior rank of holy intelli* gences, is asserted. In ch. i. 6, it cannot be denied that by * the sons of God ' who came to present themselves before God, holy beings superior to men are denoted, and that it is designed to represent this scene as occurring in heaven. It is further implied there, that they came together from an important service, as if they had been absent engaged in some ministry to other parts of the universe, and returned now to render an account, and to receive a fresh commission in their work. The term ' son of God ' is used in Daniel iii. 25, comp. 28, to denote an angel. Angels also are, undoubtedly, referred to in ch. xv. 15:
Behold, he putteth no trust in his saints, Yea, the heavens are not clean in his sight
The express mention of 'the heavens' in the parallelism, as well as the contrast between the ' saints,' or holy ones, here referred to, and with man (vs. 14, 16), proves that the ' holy ones' are angels. It is possible also that in a parallel expression in ch. xxv. 5, there may be a reference to angels:
Behold even to the moon, and it shineth not; Yea, the stars are not pure in his sight.
i^he declaration in ch, xv. 15, demonstrates that the received opinion then was that the angels were far inferior to God. They are spoken of as lioly beings; as superior to men; as eminently holy in comparison with the most holy men, but still as so far inferior to God that they were comparatively impure.
In ch. V. 1, also, there is probably an allusion to angels:
Call now, if there be any to answer thee; And to which of the saints wilt thou turn ^
4nd in ch. xxxviii. 7, they are mentioned as having been present at the creation of the earth, and as celebrating that great event with a song of praise:
When the morning stars sang together,
And all the sons of God shouted for joy.
If the book of Job was composed in the time which I have supposed, as stated in the previous parts of this Introduction, then these are among the earliest notices of the heavenly hierarchy that we have in the sacred volume. They imply that the existence of superior intelligences was an undisputed fact that might be used for the sake of argument and illustration; that they v/ere eminently holy, though far inferior to God; that they performed important offices in the administration of the universe, and that they were under the control of the Almighty, and assembled together before him from ^ime to time to give their account, and to receive afresh his conw
It would be impossible now to trace the origin of the belief in the existence of superior ranks of holy intelligences, and it would be inappropriate here to attempt to follow out the dtveloijmeiit of the idea as it occurs in the Scriptures, or as it is found in the early views of the Orientals. The belief, however, has always pervaded the Oriental world, of a series of ascending orders of intellio-ences, employed for various purposes in the administration of the afftiirs of the universe. See Creuzer, Sym, u. Myth., and Neander, as quoted above. " The ancient Persians," says Mr. Sale, Pre. Dis. to the Koran, sect, iv., " firmly believed the ministry of angels, and their superintendence over the affairs of the world (as the Magians still do), and therefore assign them distinct charges and provinces, giving their names to the months and the days of the months." The Mohammedans probably derived their views on this subject from the Old Testament, intermingled with the fables of the Jews; but it is an interesting fact that in the country of Mohammed, in the days of Job, the doctrine of the existence of a superior order of intelligences was held in its purity, and without any of the intermixtures of puerility with which the doctrine is intermingled in the Jewish traditions, and in the Koran. See Sale, Pre. Dis., sect. iv. (5.) The doctrine of the existence of evil spirits was believed with as much certainty. The introduction of the character of Satan, ch. i, 11, is conclusive proof on that point. He is a dark, malignant, accusing spirit; one who lives to spy out the conduct of others; who is suspicious of the sincerity of all virtue; who delights in the opportunity of putting virtue to the severest test, with a view to show that it is false and hollow; who delights to give pain. Satan is introduced in ch. i. 11, as if it were generally admitted that there were such evil spirits, and as if their character was so well understood that it was unnecessary to offer a remark on the subject. The book of Job, however, furnishes no information as to the prevalent belief whether those spirits were originally evil, or whether they had apostatized from a former state of holiness and happiness. The character of Satan, however, in the book of Job, is such as to render it in the highest degree probable that it was a matter of tradition that he had been the agent in the temptation of Adam, and in the introduction of sin into the world. There is a strong resemblance between the feelings with which he looked on Job, and those with which he must have regarded man in Paradise; and the general distrust which he is represented as having in the piety of Job, and the conviction which he expresses that if the proper test were applied it would be found to be insincere, is such as we might expect from one emboldened by the successful attempt to alienate man as he was created, from his Creator. There is, indeed, a slight intimation in the poem itself, that Satan was a fallen spirit that had been once holy and happy. It is found in the expression of the belief of Eliphaz in two places, that entire confidence could not be put even in the holy angels — as if there had been some revolt or apostacy among them, which rendered it possible that there iiuglit be more:
Buhold, he put no trust in Ijis servants,
And his angels lie charged with folly.
How mucli less in them that dwell in houses of clay,
Behold, he putteth no trust in his saints;
Yea, the heavens are not clean in his sight, ch. xv. 15.
Comp. ch. XXV. 5. Language like this would hardly be employed unless there was a belief that even the holiness of the angels was not incorruptible, and that there had been some revolt there among a part, which rendered it possible that others might revolt also. Comp. Jude 6, "And the angels which kept not their first estate." These passages taken together lead to a clear intimation of a belief that there had been a defection among the heavenly hosts, which was of such a character as to make it possible that they who remained there might apostatize also. They are not represented, indeed, as sinful (see the Notes on those passages); they have a degree of holiness which nothing human can equal; but still it is not of the same character as that of God; it is not so exalted as to put it above the suspicion that it might fall.
(6.) Man, in the time of Job, was regarded as a fallen being, and as wholly depraved. Of the belief that man is fallen, the following passages are full proof:
Shall mortal man be more just than God? ^
Shall a man he more pure than his Maker.''
Behold, he put no trust in his servants,
And his angels he charged with folly.
How much less in them that dwell in houses of clay,
Whose foundation is in the dust. ch. iv. 17-19.
Man that is born of a woman, is of few days, And full of trouble.
Who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean.' Not one. ch. xiv 1, 4.
Wliat is man, that he should be clean.-'
And he that is born of a woman, that he should be righteous.'
Behold, he putteth no trust in his saints;
Yea, the heavens are not clean in his sight,
How much more abominable and filthy is man.
Who drinketh iniquity like water! ch. xv. 14-16.
There is also an allusion to the manner in which this depravity was introduced into the world:
If I covered my transgressions as Adam,
By hiding mine iniquity in my bosom, ch. xxxi. 33.
Ill ch. i. 21 there seems also to be a reference to the sentence pronounced on man in consequence of the apostacy, and in ch. x. 9 it is possible that there may be the same allusion. As the language there used, however, is such as is common in all languages, and such as may be suggested by mere observation, it is not conclusively certain that the reference is to the sentence pronounced on man on account of his sin.
(7.) The necessity of reconciliation with God in order that peace may be enjoyed, is abundantly stated and enforced:
Acquaint now thyself with him, and be at peace;
Thereby good shall come unto thee. Receive, I pray thee, the law from his mouth,
(8.) The doctrine is taught that if man was penitent under the divine chastisement, God would receive the true penitent to his favor. See the passages quoted above (7), and the following:
If thou return to the Almighty, thou shalt be built up.
Thou shalt put away iniquity far from thy tabernacles, ch. xxii. 23.
If there be a messenger with him, an interpreter,
One among a thousand, to show unto man his uprightness,
Then he is gracious unto him, and saith.
Deliver him from going down to the pit;
I have found a ransom. His flesh shall be fresher than a child's; jFIe shall return to the days of his youth;
He shall pray unto God, and he will be favorable unto him j And he shall see his face with joy; For he will render unto man his righteousness. He looketh upon men; and if any say, I have sinned, And perverted that which was right, and it profited me not, He will deliver his soul from going unto the pit, And his life shall see the light, ch. xxxiii. 23-28.
(9.) The doctrine was held that man would not live again on the earth; that when he died, he departed to return no more. See this opinion presented with great beauty and force in ch. xiv.
(10.) A very important inquiry next meets us in reference to the question whether man would live after death; and if he did, what would be his condition then. This inquiry is of special importance, if, as has been supposed, this is the oldest book in the world It will thus throw important light on the development of the idea of the future state, and the belief of the early ages on that point. On this important subject, the following remarks will probably comprise all the views presented in the book of Job.
(a) There is no distinct and formal statement of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. Indeed, it w'ould be difficult, if not impossible, to make out from this book that there were any settled views on that subject then prevailing.
(b) There is no mention made of heaven, as a place of rest, or as an abode of holiness. The angels are referred to, and God is often mentioned, and there is, as we shall see, a reference to a future state of being; but there is no distinct conception of heaven, as a place where the righteous would dwell together for ever.
{(■) There is no belief expressed of the resurrection. The only passage which can, by any persons, be regarded as teaching this doctrine, is the celebrated passage, ch. xix. 25-27. But that this does not refer to the resurrection of the body, seems to me to be clear, for the reasons which are suggested in the Notes on that passage. The remarks also in ch. xiv. seem to be conclusive proof that Job did not suppose that the body would be raised up again after it had once been laid in the dust.
For there is hope of a tree,
If it be cut down, that it will sprout again,
And that tlie tender branch thereof will not cease.
Though the root thereof wax old in the earth,
And the stock thereof die in the ground;
Yet through the scent of water it will bud,
And bring forth boughs like a plant.
But man dieth and vvasteth away;
Yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he? vs. 7-10.
The same disbelief of the doctrine of the resurrection, or ignorance of it, appears from the following passages:
As the cloud is consumed and vanisheth away;
So he that goeth down to the grave shall come up no more
He shall return no more to his house,
As the waters fail from the sea,
And the flood decayeth and drieth up,
So man lieth down and riseth not;
Til! the heavens be no more they shall not awake,
If a man die, shall he live again? ver. 14.
It may be said that these passages only teach that man would not appear again on the earth; that he would not rise as the tree sprouts up and lives again. This may be so; but still, if they had known of the re.surrection at all, these sentiments would not have been uttered. That doctrine would have relieved all the difficulty as effectually as the belief that man would be raised up to dwell on the earth would have done.
{d) The doctrine of future retribution is not brought forward as it would have been, if it was clearly understood. The reference to a future state of rewards and punishments would have removed all the embarrassment which was felt by Job and his friends. It would have explained the mysterious events in the unequal distribution of rewards and punishments in this life; relieved the difficulty arising from the fact that the righteous suffer and the wicked are prospered here; and would have kept Job from murmuring and complaining under his severe trials. And though there is an occasional allusion to a future state, yet it is by no means such as would be made now in arguing on the difficulties which perplexed the minds of Job and his friends.
(e) Yet still, there icas a belief that man would live after death, or that the grave would not be the end of existence. It is remarkable that the only passages which refer to the subject, or express the belief at all, occur in the speeches of Job; and the manner in which he brings forward the doctrine seems to have made no impression on the minds of the other speakers. Even the reference to the future state by Job himself does not appear to have been designed to turn aside the force of their arguments. The views tvliich he presented on the subject do not seem to have excited any curiosity in their minds, or to have been regarded as of sufficient importance to demand a reply. The views which were entertained by Job on the subject are the following:
1. The grave was a quiet resting-place; a place where toil and Vv'o, and care would cease.
For now should I have Iain still and been quiet:
With kings and counsellors of the earth.
Or cis an hidden untimely birth I had not been;
As infants which never saw the light.
There the wicked cease from troubling,
And there the weary be at rest. oh. iii.
The cherished purposes of my heart.
Night has become day to mc;
The light bordereth on darkness.
Truly, I look to Sheol as my home;
My bed I spread in the place of darkness.
To corruption I say, ' Thou art my father j'
To the worm, ' My mother and my sister.'
And where now is my hope ^
And who will see my hope fulfilled?
To the bars of Sheol they must descend;
Yea, we shall descend together to the dust. ch. xvn. 11-16.
For the numbered years pass away;
And I am going the way whence I shall not return.
And surely the mountain falling comes to nought;
And the rock is removed from his place;
The waters wear away the stones,
The floods wash away the dust of the earth,
And the hope of man thou dost destroy.
Thou dost overpower him forever, and he passes off;
Thou dost change his countenance, and sendest him away.
His sons are honored, but he knoweth it not;
Or tliey are brought low, but he perceiveth it not. ch. xiv. 18-21.
2. But though the grave is thus tlie termination of man's earthly hopes, yet it is not the end of man. There is an abode to which the grave is but the entrance; a world where there is still consciousness, and susceptibility of happiness or wo. In that world the Shades or the Rephaim reside — the spirits of departed men •
The shades tremble from beneath;
The waters and their inhabitants.
Sheol is naked before him;
And Destruction hath no covering, ch. xxvi. 6.
It is clear here that that world is supposed to be ' beneath;' that it is under the waters; that it is the region of ' Sheol ' to which the grave is the entrance; and that there is a dominion of God over those departed Shades or Rephaim, so that he has power to make them tremble. There can be no doubt that by the Shades or Rephaim here, there is allusion to the 3Ianes Mortuum, the spirits of the dead confined in Sheol. Comp. Isa. xiv. 9. Prov. ii. 18. Ps. Ixxxviii. 10. Prov. ix. 18. Isa. xxvi. 19. That world is dark and dismal.. There is an obscure light there, but it serves only to heighten the gloom:
O spare me, and let me alone, that I may take a little ease, Before I go whence I shall not return. To the land of darkness, and the shadow of death — The land of darkness, like the blackness of the shadow of death, Where there is no order, and where its shining is like blackness.
For the bearing of this passage on the belief of the future state, the reader is referred to the Notes, This view of the future world is remarkably obscure and gloomy, and shows that even the mind of Job had not such anticipations of the future state as to cheer and suppi.rt him in the time of trial. The appreliension seems to have been that all the dead would descend through the grave to a region where only a few scattered rays of light would exist, and where the whole aspect of the dwelling was in strong contrast with the cheerful regions of the ' land of the living.' To that dark world even Job felt that it would be a calamity to descend, for though there was an expectation that there would be a distinction there between the good and the evil, yet compared with the present world of light and beauty, it was a sad and gloomy dwelling-place.
3. That world was regarded by the ancients as less desirable as a place of residence than this in several respects. It was dark and gloomy. It was entered through the grave, and the grave was only its outer court. They who dwelt there were cut off from the enjoyments of the present life. It was a land of silence. Thus Hezekiah, speaking of that world to which he had a prospect of descending when so sick, says:
Jehovah in the land of the living:
Among the inhabitants of the land of stillness.' Isa. xxxviii. 11.
In like manner, it would be a place where the worship of God could not be appropriately celebrated. Thus Hezekiah says:
For Sheol cannot praise thee;
Death cannot celebrate thee;
They that go down into the pit cannot hope for thy truth.
The living, the living, he shall praise thee, as I do this day;
The father to the children shall make known thy faithfulness.
A similar sentnnent is expressed by David, Ps. vi. 5:
For in death there is no remembrance of thee; In the grave who shall give tliee thanks.''
A similar view of that world appears to have been taken by Job. Indeed, it is not improbable that the view of Job was even more gloomy in regard to that future world, as he lived at a period so much earlier than David and Hezekiah. Successive revelations imparted new light, and the idea of the future state was more and more developed, though in the time of Hezekiah it was accompanied with much that was dark and gloomy. It was reserved for the gospel fully to ' bring life and immortality to light.' Yet,
4. In that future world there was some belief that there would be a separation between the good and the bad; or that the wicked would be visited with punislunnif — though the belief of this is represented as received from travellers, the faith of foreign lands •
Have ye not inquired of the travellers?
And will you not admit their testimony?
That the wicked man is kept for the day of destruction?
And that he shall be brought forth in the day of fierce wrath?
That this ' wrath' refers to punishment which the wicked will experience alter death, is apparent from what Job immediately adds, that he well knows that his present life may be one of prosperity, and that he may lie down with honor in the grave, and that the clods of the valley Vv^iii be sweet unto him:
Who charges him with his way to his face?
And who recompenses to him that which he hath done
And he shall be borne [with honor] to the grave,
And [friends] shall watch tenderly over his tomb.
Sweet to him shall be the clods of tlie valley;
Every man shall go out to honor him,
And of those before him there shall be no number, ch. xxi. 31-33.
Conip. Notes on Isa. xiv. 15-19. It will be apparent from these ilhisirations, that the views of the future state in the time of Job were very obscure, and this is the reason of the remarkable fact that no particular reference is made in the argument to it, in order to remove the difficulties that were felt in regard to the divine admini.stration here. •
(11.) God was to be worshipped by sacrifice and burnt-offerings. It was in this way that Job sought to make expiation for the sins which his children might inadvertently have committed (ch i. 5, 6),:.!id that the sins of his friends were to be expiated (ch. xlii. 8). This was evidently among the earliest modes of worship (comp. '':en. iv. 4, viii. 20, 21), and there was, therefore, some idea of the iiature of an atonement, or of expiation for sin. I do not see any reason to doubt that Job, in common with all the patriarchs, may iiave had some conception that these bloody ofterings were designed to point to the one great Sacrifice that was to be made for the sins of the world; but there is no intimation of any such belief in the book itself Of the modes of worship, besides the offering of sacrifice, nothing can be learned from this book, except that sacrifices were to be accompanied with prayer, and that prayer was acceptable to God and would be heard; ch. xlii. 8, xxxiii. 26, 27, 28, xi. 13-15. Repentance was also demanded, and where there was a penitent heart, the offender v/ould be accepted.
If thou prepare thine heart,
And stretch out thine hands towards him;
If the iniquity which is in thine hands thou wilt put far away,
And will not suffer evil to dwell in thy habitation,
Then shalt thou lift up thy countenance [bright] without spot,
And thou shalt be firm, and shalt not fear.
And thy life shall be bright above the noonday,
— Now thou art in darkness — but thou shalt be as the morning.
The religion of the time of Job was a pure theism. It consisted in the worship of one God, with appropriate sacrifices, and with acts of confidence and adoration, and with dependence on his mercy to lost sinners. There is, indeed, no express mention of convocations for public worship, nor of the Sabbath, nor of the office of priest. As in the time of Noah (Gen. viii.) the father of a family was the officiating priest who laid the victim on the altar, so it was in the time of Job, ch. i. 4, 5. In these services there was the most profound veneration for the one God, and the deepest abhorrence of idolatry in all its forms.
If I have made gold my trust,
Or said to the fine gold. Thou art my confidence;
If I rejoiced because my wealth was great.
And because mine hand had found much;
If I beheld the sun when it shined,
And the moon advancing in its brightness.
And my heart has been secretly enticed,
And my mouth has kissed my hand;
This also were a crime to be punished by the judge,
For I should have denied the God who is above, ch. xxxi. 24-128.
There is nowhere in the book an intimation that the sun, the moon, the stars, or any created being, was to be honored as God.
(12.) We have in the book of Job an interesting view of the nature and effects of true piety. The necessity of holiness of life, of trust in God, of integrity and truth, is every where insisted on as essential to true religion. To transcribe the particular places where these are dwelt upon, would be to copy a considerable part of the book. We may just advert to the beautiful manner in which the necessity oi sincerity in the service of God is urged, and in which the sin and danger of hypocrisy are expressed:
Can the paper reed grow up without mire.'*
Can the bulrush grow up without water.''
Even yet in its greenness, and uncut.
It withereth before any other herb.
Such are the ways of all who forget God j
So perishes the hope of the hypocrite.
And his trust shall be the building of the spider.
He shall lean upon the building, and it shall not stand j
He shall grasp it, but it shall not endure, ch. viii. 11-15
Knowest thou not that from the most ancient times. From the time when man was placed upon the earth, That the triumphing of the wicked is short.
And the joy of the hypocrite is but for a moment?
Though his greatness mount up to the heavens,
And his excellency unto the clouds,
Yet he shall perish for ever as the vilest substance
They who have seen him shall say, Where is he?
He shall flee away as a dream, and not be found,
Yea, he shall vanish as a vision of the night, ch. xx. 4-8.
For what is the hope of the hypocrite when [God] cuts him off;
When he taketh away his life?
Will God listen to his cry
When trouble cometh upon him?
Will he delight him^self in the Almighty?
Will ho call at all times upon God? ch. xxvii. 8-10.
(13.) An interesting view of the religion of the time of Job is seen in its influence on morals and manners. Customs in the Oriental world change little, and in Arabia at the present time we have still interesting illustrations of what existed in the days of Job. In the patriarchal times all this was identified with their religion, and there is scarcely even now to be found any where more beautiful illustrations of the nature and effects of religion in these respects, than occur in the book of Job, and nowhere are there more happy descriptions of the simplicity, the purity, the urbanity of early manners and customs. This is seen in the book of Job in the following respects:
(a) In the perfect respectfulness of manner in their treatment of each other. In all the long controver.sy recorded in this book, and in all that was said that was harsh and adapted to irritate, there is no interruption of the speaker. There is no passionate outbreak. It was a conceded and well understood matter that the speaker was to be heard patiently through, and then that the reply was to be heard as patiently. No matter how much misapprehension of the meaning of the one who Itad spoken there might be, no matter what reflection there might be on his motives or character, and no matter how severe and withering the sarcasm, yet there is no attempt to break in upon the speaker. This is understood still to be courtesy in the Oriental world; this was regarded as courtesy among the aborigines of this country; and in this respect the more civilized and polished people of our times might learn something from even the wandering Arab, or the *'wild untutored Indian." Thus Dr. Franklin (Works, vol. ii 455), speaking of the " Savages of North America," says, " Having frequent occasions to hold public councils, they have acquired great order and decency in conducting them. The old men sit in the foremost ranks, the warriors in the next, and the women and children in the hindmost. The business of the women is to take exact notice of what passes, imprint it on their memories, and communicate it to their children. He that would speak, rises. The rest observe a profound silence. When he has finished, and sits down, they leave him five or six minutes to recollect, that if he has omitted any thing he intended to say, or has any thing to add, he may rise again and deliver it. To interrupt another, even in common conversation, is reckoned highly indecent. How different this is from the conduct of a polite British House of Commons, where scarce a day passes without some confusion, that makes the Speaker hoarse in calling to order, ^^ &c. " It is one of the Indian rules of politeness not to answer a public proposition the same day that it is made; they think it would be treating it as a light matter, and that they show it respect by taking time to consider it, as of a matter important." Ibid. p. 454.
{h) Respect for age. More beautiful instances of this can nowhere be found than in the modesty of Elihu, and in the deference which Job said was paid to him in his days of prosperity. Elihu says:
I!ini young, and ye are very old;
And durst not make known to you mine opinion.
And niuhitude of years should teach wisdom.
But there is a spirit in man:
And the inspiration of the Almighty giveth him understanding.
Great ijien are not always wise;
Neither do the aged always understand what is right.
Therefore I said. Hearken unto me;
I also will declare mine opinion.
Behold, I waited for your words,
I listened to your arguments,
While ye searched out what to say.
And behold, there is no one that hath refuted Job,
They were confounded; they answered no more;
They put words far from them.
And I waited, although they did not speak;
Although they stood still, and answered no more.
Now will I answer on my part;
So Job speaks of the respect that was shown him in the days of his prosperity:
When I went forth to the gate through the city,
And prepared my seat in the public place.
The young men saw me, and respectfully retired before me j
The aged arose, and stood.
The princes refrained from speaking.
And laid their hand upon their mouth.
The voice of counsellors was silent,
And their tongue cleaved to the roof of their mouth.
For the ear heard, and it blessed me;
And the eye saw, and it bore witness to me. ch. xxix. 7-11.
(c) One of the virtues then much dwelt on, as an act of piety, was that of hospitality. This is frequently alluded to with great beauty in the poem, as it is in all the poetry of Arabia now, and in the days of Job was esteemed to be a virtue as essential as it is now in the East.
If I have withheld the poor from their desire,
Or caused the eyes of the widow to fail;
If I have eaten my morsel alone,
And the fatherless hath not eaten of it;
— For from my youth he grew up with me as with a father.
And I was her guide from my earliest days —
If I have seen any one perish for want of clothing.
Or any poor man without covering;
If his loins have not blessed me,
And if he have not been warmed with the fleece of my sheep;
Then may my shoulder full from the blade.
And mine arm be broken from the upper bone, ch. xxxi. 16-22.
If my domestics could not at all times say, [table,'
'Let them show one who has not been satisfied from his hospitable
(The stranger did not lodge in the street,
My doors I opened to the traveller,)
Then let me be confounded before a great multitude!
Let the contempt of families crush me! ch. xxxi. 31-34.
See also ch. xviii. 5, 6, xxi. 17, and the Notes on those places.
(d) In like manner, piety then consisted much in kindness to the poor, the widow, and the fatherless, and to those in the humbler ranks of life. Job's beautiful description of his own piety in the days of his prosperity is ail that is needful to illustrate this;
For I rescued the poor when they cried.
And the fatherless when there was none to help him.
The blessing of iiim that was ready to perish came upon me.
And feet was I to the lame.
I was a father to the poor.
And the cause of the unknown I searched out.
And I broke the teeth of the wicked,
And from their teeth I plucked away the spoil, ch. xxix. 15-17
Did not I weep for him that was in trouble,
Was not my soul grieved for the poor.'' ch. xxx. 25.
If I have refused justice to my man-servant or maid-servant,
When they had a cause with me,
What shall I do when God riseth up.''
When he visiteth, what shall I answer him.-*
Did not he that made me in the womb make him?
Did not the same One fashir»n us in the womb.' ch. xxxi. 13-15.
If my land cry out against me,
And tlie furrows likewise complain;
If I have eaten its fruits without payment,
And extorted the living of its owners;
Let thistles grow up instead of wheat,
And noxious weeds instead of barley, ch. xxxi. 38-40.
§ 8. The state of the arts aiid sciences in the time of Job.
There is one important aspect still in which the book of Job may be contemplated. It is as an illustration of the state of the arts and sciences of the period of the world when it was composed. We are not indeed, in a poem of this nature, to look for fortnal treatises on any of the arts or sciences as then understood, but all that we can expect to find must be incidental allusions, or hints, that may enable us to determine with some degree of accuracy what advances society had then made. Such allusions are also of much more value in determining the progress of society, than extended descriptions of conquests and sieges would be. The latter merely change t!ie boundaries of empire; the former indicate progress in the condition of man. Inventions in the arts and discoveries in science are fxcd points, from which society does not go backward. I propose, then, as an illustration of the progress which society had made in the time of Job, as well as to prepare the mind to read the book in the most intelligent manner, to bring together the scattered notices of the state of the arts and sciences contained in this poens. No exact order can be observed in this; nor is there any thing in the poem to indicate which of the things specified had the priority in point of time, or when the invention or discovery was made. The order of the arrangement chosen will have some reference to the importance of the subjects, and also some to what may be supposed to have first attracted attention. For a more full view of the various points that will be referred to, reference may be made to the N'^tcs on the various passages adduced.
The stars were early observed in Chaldea, where the science of astronomy had its origin. A pastoral people always have some knowledge of the heavenly bodies. The tending of flocks by night, under a clear Oriental sky, gave abundant opportunity for observing the motions of the heavenly bodies, and names would soon be given to the most important of the stars; the difference between the planets and the fixed stars would be observed, and the imagination would be employed in grouping the stars into fanciful resemblances to animals and <^ther objects. In like manner, as caravans travelled much at night through the deserts, on account of the comparative coolness then, they would have an opportunity of observing the stars, and some knowledge of the heavenly bodies became necessary to guide their way. The notices of the heavenly bodies in this poem show chiefly that names were given to some of the stars; that they were grouped together in constellations; and that the times of the appearance of certain stars had been carefully observed, and their relation to certain aspects of the weather had been marked. There is no express mention of the planets as distinguished from the fixed stars; and nothing to lead us to suppose that they were acquainted with the true system of astronomy.
He commandeth the sun, and it risetli not,
And he sealeth up the stars.
He alone stretcheth out the heavens,
And vvalketh upon the high waves of the sea.
The Pleiades, and the secret chambers of the south, ch.ix. 7-9.
Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades,
Or loose the bands of Orion.''
Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season,
Or lead forth the Bear with her young?
Knowest thou the laws of the heavens.
Or hast thou appointed their dominion over the earth?
It would seem from these passages, that the allusion to the clusters of stars here, is made to them as the harbingers of certain seasons. " It is well known, that, in different regions of the earth, the appearance of certain constellations before sunrise or after sunset, marks the distinction of seasons, and regulates the labors of the husbandman." Wcmyss. It is also known that the appearance of certain constellations — as Orion — was regarded by mariners as denoting a stormy and tempestuous season of the year. See the Notes on the passages quoted above. This seems to be the knowledge of the constellations referred to here, and there is no certain evidence that the observation of the heavens in the time of Job had gone beyond this.
A somewhat curious use has been made of the reference to the stars in the book of Job, by an attempt to determine the time when he lived. Supposing the principal stars here mentioned to be those of Taurus and Scorpio, and that these were the cardinal constellations of spring and autumn in the time of Job, and calculating their positions by the precession of the equinoxes, the time referred to in the book of Job was found to be 818 years after the deluge, or 184 years before the birth of Abraham. " This calculation, made by Dr. Brinkley of Dublin, and adopted by Dr. Hales, had been made also in 1765 by M. Diicontant in Paris, with a result differing only in being forty-two years less." The coincidence is remarkable, but the proof that the constellations referred to are Taurus and Scorpio, is too uncertain to give much weight to the argument.