ALLEN Jc SPIER,
^ 1. The Situation of Ephesusy and the Character of its People.
This epistle purports to have been written to the " Saints in Ephesus, and to the -feithfnl in Christ Jesus," though, as we shall see, the fact of its having- been directed to the church at Ephesus has been called in question. Assuming now that it was sent to Ephesus, it is of importance to have a general view of the situation of that city, of the character of its people, and of the time and manner in which the gospel was introduced there, in order to a correct understanding of the epistle. Ephesus was a celebrated city of Ionia in Asia Minor, and was about 40 miles south of Smyrna, and near the mouth of the river Cayster. The river, though inferior in beauty to the Meander which flows south of it, waters a fertile vale of the ancient Ionia. Ionia was the most beautiful and fertile pm of Asia Minor; was settled almost wholly by Greek colonies; and embosomed Pergamos, Smyrna, Ephesus, and Miletus. See Travels of Anacharsis, i. 91. 208; vi. 192. 97, 98. The climate of Ionia is represented as remarkably mild, and the air as pure and sweet, and this region became early celebrated for every thing that constitutes softness and effeminacy in life. Its people were distinguished for amiableness and refinement of manners, and also for luxury, for music and dancing, and for the seductive arts that lead to vicious indulgence. Numerous festivals occupied them at home, or attracted them to neighbouring cities, where the men appeared in magnificent habits, and the women in all the elegance of female ornament, and with all the desire of pleasure. — Anachar.
Ephesus was not, like Smyrna, distinguished for commercial advantages. The consequence has been that, not having such advantage, it has Mien into total ruin, while Smyrna has retained some degree of its ancient importance. It was in a rich region of country, and seems to have risen into importance mainly because it became the favourite resort of foreigners in the worship of Diana, and owed its celebrity to its temple more than to any thing else. This ciiy was once, however, the most splendid city in Asia Minor. Steph^s, the geographer, gives it the title of Epiphaaestate, or "Most Illustrious;" Pliny styles it "The Ornament of Asia." In Roman times it was the metropolis of Asia, and unquestionably rose to a degree of splendour that was surpassed by few, if any, oriental cities.
That for which the city was most celebrated was the Temple of Diana. This temple was 425 feet in length, and 220 in breadth. It was encompassed by 127 pillars, each 60 feet in height, which were presented by as many kings. Some of those pillars, it is said, are yet to be seen in the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople, having been removed there when tlie churcli of St. Sophia was erected. These, however, were the pillars that constituted a part of the temple after it had been burned and was repaired, though it is probable that the same pillars were retained in the second temple which had constituted the glory of the first. All the provinces of Asia Minor contributed to the erection of this splendid temple, and two hundred years were consumed in building it. This temple was set on fire by a man named Herostratus, who, when put to the torture, confessed that his only motive was to immortalize his name. The general assembly of the states of Ionia passed a decree to devote his name to oblivion; but the fact of the decree has only served to perpetuate it. Cicer. de Nat. Deor. 2. 27. Plutarch, Life of Alex. Comp. Anachar. vi. 189. The whole of the edifice was consumed except the four walls and some of the columns. - It was, however, rebuilt, with the same magnificence as before, and was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. It is now in utter ruin. After the temple had been repeatedly pillaged by the barbarians, Justinian removed the columns to adorn the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. The place where it stood can now be identified certainly, if at all, only by the marshy spot on which it was erected, and by the prodigious arches raised above as a foundation. The vaults formed by them compose a sort of labyrinth, and the water is kneedeep beneath. There is not an apartment entire; but tliick walls^ shafts of columns, and fragments of every kind, are scattered around in confiision. Ency. Geog. ii. 273, 274.
In the reign of Tiberius, Ephesus was greatly damaged by an earthquake; but it was repaired and embellished by the emperor. In the war between Mitliridates and the Romans, Ephesus took part with the former, and massacred the Romans who dwelt in it. Sylla severely punished this cruelty; but Ephesus was afterwards treated with lenity, and enjoyed its own laws, with other privileges. About the end of the eleventh century, it was seized by a pirate named Tangripermes, but he was routed by John Ducas, the Greek Admiral, in a bloody battle. Theodorus Lascarus, a Greek, made himself master of it in 1206. The Mohammedans recovered it in 1283. In the year 1401, Tamerlane employed a whole month in plundering the city and the neighbouring country. Shortly after the city was set on fire, and was mostly burnt in a combat between the Turkish governor and the Tartars. In 1405, it was taken by Mahomet I., and has continued since that time in the possession of the Turks. Calmet.
There is now a small and mean village, named Aylsaluk, near the site of the ancient town, consisting of a few cottages, which is all that now represents this city of ancient splendour. Dr. Chavolla says, " the in-
habitants are a few Greek peasants, living in extreme wretchedness, dependence, and insensibility; the representatives of an illustrious people, and inhabiting the wreck of their greatness — some in the substructions of the glorious edifices which they raised — some beneath the vaults of the stadium, once the crowded scene of their diversions — and some by the abrupt precipice in the sepulchres which received their ashes. Its streets are obscured and overgrown. A herd of goats was driven to it for shelter fi*om the sun at noon, and a noisy flight of crows from the quarries seemed to insult its silence. We heard the partridge call in the area of the theatre and the stadium. The glorious pomp of its heathen worship is no longer numbered; and Christianity, which w^as here nursed by apostles, and fostered by general councils, until it increased to fiilness of stature, barely lingers on in an existence hardly visible." Travels, p.
131. Oxford, 1775. A very full and interesting description of Ephesus, as it appeared in 1739, may be seen in Pococke's Travels, vol. ii. Part ii. pp. 45— -53, ed. Lond. 1745. Several ruins are described by him, but they have mostly now disappeared. The Temple of Diana was on the western side of the plain on which the city was built, and the site is now in the midst of a morass which renders access difficult The ruins of several theatres and other buildings are described by Pococke.
In the year 1821, Mr. Fisk, the American Missionary, visited tlie ruins of Ephesus, of which he has given the following account. " We sent
back our horses to Aisaluck, and set out on foot to survey the ruins of Ephesus. The ground was covered with high grass or grain, and a very heavy dew rendered the walking rather unpleasant. On the east side of the hill, we found nothing worthy of notice; no appearance of having been occupied for buildings. On the north side was the circus or stadium. Its length from east to west is forty rods or one stadium. The north or lower side was supported by arches which still remain. The area where the races used to be performed, is now a field of wheat. At the west end was the gate. The walls adjoining it are still standing, and are of considerable height and strength. North of the stadium, and separated only by a street, is a large square, inclined with fellen walls, and filled with the ruins of various edifices. A street running north and south divides this square in the centre. West of the stadium is an elevation of ground, level at the top, with an immense pedestal in the centre of it What building stood there it is not easy to say. Between this and the stadium was a street passing from the great plain north of Ephesus, into the midst of the city.
" I found on the plains of Ephesus some Greek peasants, men and •jromen, employed in pulling up tares and weeds from the wheat. I ascertained, however, tJiat they all belonged to villages at a distance, and lame there to labour. Tournefort says, that when he was at Ephesus, there were thirty or forty Greek femilies there. Chandler found only ten or twelve individuals. Now no human being lives in Ephesus; and in Aisaluck, which may be considered as Ephesus under another name, though not on precisely the same spot of ground, there are merely a few miserable Turkish huts.
" The plain of Ephesus is now very unhealthy, owing to the fogs and mists which almost continually rest upon it The land, however, is rich, and the surrounding country is both fertile and healthy. The adjacent hills would fiirnish many delightful situations for villages, if the difficulties were removed which are thrown in the way by a despotic government, oppressive agas, and wandering banditti." Missionary Herald for
The following cuts represent — the first, a general view of the ruins of Ephesus, and the second, from the Pictorial Bible, a view of one part of that city.
§ 2. The Introduction of the Gospel at Ephesus.
It is admitted by all that the gospel was introduced into Ephesus by the apostle Paul. He first preached there when on his wajr fi*om Corinth to Jerusalem, about the year 54. Acts xviii. 19. On this visit he went into the synagogue, as was his usual custom, and preached to his own countrymen, but he does not appear to have preached publicly to the heathen. He was requested to remain longer with them, but he said he must by all means be in Jerusalem at the approaching feast — probably the passover. Acts xviii. 21. He promised, however, to visit them again if possible, and sailed firom Ephesus to Jerusalem. Two persons had gone with Paul from Corinth — Priscilla and Aquila — whom he appears to have left at Ephesus, or who at any rate soon returned there. Acts xviii. 18. 26. During the absence of Paul, there came to Ephesus a certain Jew, bom in Alexandria, named Apollos, an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures, who had received the baptism of John, and who taught the doctrine that John had taught. Acts xviii. 24. 25. What was;he precise nature of that doctrine it is difficult now to understand. It seems to have been in substance that repentance was necessary, that baptism was to be perfonned, and that the Messiah was about to appear. This doctrine Apollos had embraced with zeal, was ready to defend it, and was in just the state of mind to welcome the news that the Messiah had come. This zealous and talented man, Priscilla and Aquila instructed more fully in the doctrines of the Christian religion, and communicated to him the views which they had received from Paul. Acts xviii. 26. Paul having gone to Jerusalem as he purposed, returned again to Asia Minor, and taking Phrygia and Galatia in his way, revisited Ephesus, and remained there about three years. Acts xviii. 23; xix. 1, seq. It was during this time that the church was founded, which afterwards became so prominent, and to which this epistle was written. The principal events in the life of Paul there were, (1.) his baptizing the twelve persons whom he found there, who were disciples of John. Notes, Acts xix. 1 — 7. (2.) Paul went into the synagogue there, and engaged in an earnest discussion with the Jews, about three months, respecting the Messiah. Acts xix. 8 — 10. (3.) When many of the Jews opposed him, he left the synagogue, and obtained a place to preach in, in the school-room of a man by the name of Tyrannus. In this place he continued to preach without molestation for two years, and proclaimed the gospel so that a large portion of the inhabitants had an opportunity ot hearing it. (4.) The cause of religion was greatly promoted by the miracles which Paul wrought. Acts xix. 11 — 17. (5.) Paul remained there until his preaching excited great commotion, and he was at last driven away by the tumult which was excited by Demetrius. Acts xix. 23 — 41. At this time the gospel had secured such a hold on the people that^there was danger that the temple of Diana would be forsaken, and that all who were dependent on the worship of Diana for a livelihood would be thrown out^of employment. It is not probable tliat Paul visited Ephesus after this, unless it was after his first imprisonment at Rome, See Intro, to 11. Timothy. On his way from Macedonia to Jerusalem he came to Miletus, and sent for the elders of Ephesus, and gave them his deeply affecting parting address, expecting to see them no more. Acta XX. 16, seq.
Paul remained longer at Ephesus than he did at any other one place preaching" the gospel. He seems to have set himself deliberately to work to establish a church there, which would ultimately overthrow idolatry. Several reasons may have led him to depart so far from his usual plan, by labouring so long in one place. One may have been that this was the principal seat of idolatry then in the world. The evident aim of Paul in his ministry was, to reach the centres of influence and power. Hence lie mainly sought to preach the gospel in large cities, and thus it was that Antioch, and Ephesus, and Corinth, and Athens, and Philippi, and Rome, shared so largely in his labours. Not ashamed of the gospel any where, he yet sought mainly that its power should be felt where wealth, and earning, and genius, and talent were concentrated. The very places, therefore, where the most magnificent temples were erected to the gods, and where the worship of idols was celebrated with the most splendour and pomp, and where that worship was defended most strongly by the civil arm, were those in which the apostles sought first to preach the gospel. Ephesus, therefore, as the most splendid seat of idolatry at that time in the whole Pagan world, particularly attracted the attention of the apostle, and hence it was that he was willing to spend so large a part of his public life in that place. It may have been for tliis reason that John afterwards made, it his permanent abode, and spent so many years there as the minister of the church wliich had been founded by Paul. See § 3. Another reason why Paul sought Ephesus as a field of labour may have been, that it was at that time not only the principal seat of idolatry, but was a place of great importance in the civil affairs of the Roman empire. It was the residence of the Roman Proconsul, and the seat of the courts of justice in Asia Minor, and consequently was a place to which there would be attracted a great amount of learning and talent. Macknight. The apostle, therefore, seems to have been anxious that the fiiU power of the gospel should be tried there, and that Ephesus should become as important as a centre of influence in the Christian world, as it had been in Paganism and in civil affairs.
$ 3. Notices of the History of the Church at Ephesus.
The church at Ephesus was one of the" seven churches of Asia, and the first one mentioned to which John was directed to address an epistle from Patmos. Rev. ii. 1 — 7. Little is said of it in the New Testament from the time when Paul left it until the book of Revelation was written. The tradition is, that Timothy was a minister at Ephesus, and was succeeded by the apostle John; but whether John came there while Timothy was living, or not until his removal or death, even tradition does not inform us. In the subscription to the sacred epistle to Timothy, it is said of Timothy that he was " ordained the first Bishop of the church of the Ephesians;" but this is of no authority whatever. All that can be with certainty learned about the residence of Timotliy at Ephesus, is what the Apostle Paul says of him in his first epistle to Timothy. Ch. i. 3. " As I besought thee to abide still at Ephesus, when I went into Macedonia, that thou mightest charge some that they teach no other doctrine." From this it would appear that the residence of Timothy at Ephesus waa a temporary arrangement, designed to secure a result which Paul wished particularly to secure, and to avoid an evil which he had reason to dread would follow from his own absence. That it was a temporary arrangement, is apparent from the fact that Paul soon after desired him to come to Rome, 2 Tim. iv. 9. 11. The second epistle of Paul to Timothy was written but a few years after the first. According to Lardner, the first was written in the year 56, and the second in the year 62; according to Hug, the first was written in the year 59, and the second in the year 61; according to the Editor of the Polyglott Bible, the first was written A. D. 65, and the second A. D. 66. According to either calculation the time of the residence of Timothy in Ephesus was brief. There is not the slightest evidence from the,New Testament that he was a permanent Bishop of Ephesus, or indeed that he was a Bishop at all in the modern sense of the term. Those who may be disposed to look further into this matter, and to examine the relation which Timothy sustained to the church of Ephesus, and the claim which is sometimes set up for his having sustained the office of a Bishop, may find an examination in the Review of Bishop Onderdonk's Tract on Episcopacy, published in the Quarterly Christian Spectator in March 1834, and March 1835, and republished in 1843 under the title of " The Organization and Government of the Apostolic Church," pp. 99—107.
Whatever was the relation which he sustained to the church in Ephesus, it is agreed on all hands that John the apostle spent there a considerable portion of his life. At what time he went to Ephesus, or why he did it, is not now known. The common opinion is, that he remamed at or near Jerusalem for some fifteen years after the crucifixion of the Lord Jesus, during which time he had the special charge of Mary the mother of the Saviour; that he then preached the gospel to the Parthians and the Indians, and that he then returned and went to Ephesus, in or near which he spent his Isctter days, and in which, at a very advanced age, he died. It was from Ephesus that, under the Emperor Domitian, A. D. 95, he was banished to the island of Patmos, from which he returned A. D. 97, on the accession of Nerva to the crown, who recalled all who had been banished. Jolm is supposed at that tune to have been about ninety years of age. He is said to have died at Ephesus in the third year of Trajan, A. D. 100, aged about ninety-four years. For a full and interesting biography of the Apostle John, the reader may consult the " Lives of the Apostles," by David Francis Bacon, pp. 307 — 376.
Of the subsequent history of the church at Ephesus, little is known, and it would not be necessary to dwell upon it in order to an exposition of the epistle before us. It is sufficient to remark, that the " candlestick is removed out of its place," (Rev. ii. 5,) and that all the splendour of the temple of Diana, all the pomp of her worship, and all the glory of the Christian church there, have alike faded away.
5 4. The time and place of writing the Epistle.
It has never been denied that the Apostle Paul was the author of this epistle, though it has been made a question whether it were written to the Ephesians or to the Laodiceans. See ^ 5. Dr. Paley {HorcB PaulincR) has shown that there is conclusive internal proof that this epistle was written by Paul. This argument is derived from the style, and is carried out by a comparison of this epistle with the other undoubted writings of the apostle. The historical evidence on this point also is undisputed.
It IS generally supposed, and indeed the evidence seeins to be clear, that this epistle was written during the^ imprisonment of the apostle at Rome; but whether it was during his tirst or his second imprisonment, is not certain. Paul was held in custody for some two years in Cesarea, (Acts xxiv. 27,) but there is no evidence that during that time, he addressed any epistle to the churches which he had planted. That this was written when he was a prisoner, is apparent from the epistle itself, "The two years in which Paul was imprisoned at Cesarea," says Wall, as quoted by Lardner, " seem to have been the most inactive part of St Paul's life. There is no account of any proceedings or disputations, or of any epistles written in this space." This may have arisen, Lardner supposes, from the fact that the Jews made such an opposition that the Roman governor would not allow him to have" - any intercourse with the people at large, or procure any intelligence from the churches abroad, feut when he was at Rome, he had more liberty. He was allowed to dwell in his own hired house, (Acts xxviii. 30,) and had permission to address all who came to him, and to communicate freely with his friends abroad. It was during this period that he wrote at least four of his epistles — to the Ephesians, the Philippians, the Colossians, and Philemon. Grotius, as quoted by Lardner, says of these epistles, that though all Paul's epistles are excellent, yet he most admires those written by him when a prisoner at Rome. Of the epistle to the Ephesians, he says it surpasses all human eloquence — rerum sublimitatem adsequans verbis fiublimioribus, quam ulla unquam habuit lingua humana — describing the sublimity of the things by corresponding words more sublime than are found elsewhere in human language. The evidence that it was written when Paul was a prisoner, is found in the epistle itself. Thus in ch. iii. 1, he says, " I Paul, the prisoner of Jesus Christ — 6 Siamos tov xpi<^rov — for you Gentiles." So he alludes to his afflictions in ch. iii. 13. " I desire that ye faint not at my tribulations for you." In ch. iv. 1, he calls himself the " prisoner of the Lord," or in the margin, " in the Lord" — h Siancog h Kvplta. And in ch. vi. 19, 20, there is an allusion which seems to settle the inquiry beyond dispute, and to prove that it was written while he was at Rome. He there says that he was an "ambassador in bonds''' — ivaX^crti — in chains, manacles, or shackles; and yet he desires (ver. 19, 20) that they would pray for him, that utterance might be given him to open his mouth boldly to make known the mystery of the gospel, that he might speak boldly, as he ought to speak. Now this is a remarkable circumstance. A man in custody, in bonds or chains, and that too for being an " ambassador," and yet asking the aid of their prayers, that in these circumstances he might have grace to be a bold preacher of the gospel. If he was in prison this could not well be. If he was under a strict prohibition it could not well be. The circumstances of the case tally exactly with the statement in the last chapter of tlie Acts of the Apostles, that Paul was in custody in Rome; that he was permitted to " dwell by himself with a soldier that kept him," (ver. 16;) that he was permitted to call the Jews together, and to debate with them freely, (vs. 17 — ^28;) and that Paul dwelt in his own hired house for two years, and " received all that came in with him, preaching the kingdom of God," &c. (vs. 30, 31.) So exactly do these circumstances correspond, that I have no doubt that was the time when the epistle was written. And so unusual is such a train of circumstances— so unlikely would it be tn occur to a man to forge such a coincidence, that it furnishes a strikinrj proof that the opistle was written, as it purports to be, by Paul. An impostor would not have thought of inventing such a coincidence. If it had occurred to him to make any such allusion, the place and time would have been more distinctly mentioned, and not have been left as a mere incidental allusion. The Apostle Paul is supposed to have been at Rome as a prisoner twice, (Comp. Intro, to 2 Tim.,) and to have suffered martyrdom there about A. D. 65 or Q^. If the epistle to the Ephesians was written during his second imprisonment" at Rome, as is commonly supposed, then it must have been somewhere between the years 63 and 65. Lardner and Hug suppose that it was written April 61; Macknight supposes it was in 60 or 61; the Editor of the Polyglott Bible places it at 64. The exact time when it was written cannot now be ascertained, and is not material.
5 5. To wliom was the Epistle written?
The epistle purports to have been written to the Ephesians — " to the saints which are at Ephesus," — i. 1. But the opinion that it was written to the Ephesians, has been called in question by many expositors. Dr. Paley {Hor. Paul.) supposes that it was written, to the Laodiceans. Wetstein also maintained the same opinion. This opinion was expressly stated also by Marcion, a " heretic" of the second century. Michaelis (Intro.) supposes that it was a "circular epistle,' addressed not to any church in particular, but intended for the Ephesians, Laodiceans, and some other churches of Asia Minor. He supposes that the apostle had several copies taken; that he made it intentionally of a very general character, so as to suit all; that he affixed with his own hand the subscription, ch. vi. 24, to each copy — " Grace be with all them that love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity;" that at the begihnmg of the epistle the name was inserted of the particular church to which it was to be sent — as " to the church in Ephesus " — " in Laodicea," &c. When the several works composing the New Testament were collected into a volume, he supposes that it so happened, that the copy of this epistle which was used, was one obtained from Ephesus, containing a direction to the saints there. This is also the opinion of Archbishop Usher and Koppe. It does not comport with the design of these Notes, to go into an extended examination of this question; and after all that has been written on it, and the different opuiions which have been entertained, it certainly does not become any one to be very confident. It is not a question of great importance, as it involves no point of doctrine or duty; but those who wish to see it discussed at length, can be satisfied by referring to Paley's HorcR PaulincR; to Michaelis' Intro., vol. iv. ch. xx., and to the Prolegomena of Koppe. The arguments which are alleged to prove that it was addressed to the church at Laodicea, or at least not to the church at Ephesus, are summarily the following: — (1.) The testimony of Marcion, a heretic of the second century, who affirms that it was sent to the church in Laodicea, and that instead of the reading (ch. i. 1) " in Ephesus," in the copy which he had it was " in Laodicea." But the opinion of Marcion is now regarded as of little weight. It is admitted that he was in the habit of altering the Greek text to suit his own views. (2.) The princip?! objection to the opuiion that it was written to the church at Ephesus, \% feund ill certain internal marks, and particularly in the want of any allusion to tlie fact that Paul had ever been there, or to any thing that particularly related to the church there. This difficulty comprises several particulars, (a) Paul spent nearly three years in Ephesus, and M^as engaged there in deeply interesting transactions and occurrences. He had founded the church, ordauied its elders, taught them the doctrines which they held, and had at last been persecuted there and driven away. If the epistle was written to them, it is remarkable that there is in the epistle no allusion to any one of these facts or circumstances. This is the more remarkable, as it was his usual custom to allude to the events which had occurred in the churches which he had founded, (see the epistles to the Corinthians and Philippians,) and as on two other occasions at least he makes direct allusion to these transactions at Ephesus. See Acts xx. 18 — 35, 1 Cor. XV. 32. (6) In the otlier epistles which Paul wrote, it was his custom to salute a large number of persons by name; but in this epistle there is no salutation of any kind. There is a general invocation of " peace to the brethren," (ch. vi. 23,) but no mention of an individual by name. There is not even an allusion to the " elders " whom, with so much affection, he had addressed at Miletus, (Acts xx.,) and to whom he had given so solemn a charge. This is the more remarkable, as in this place he_ had spent three years in preaching the gospel, and must have been acquainted with all the leading members in the church. To the church'at Rome, which he had never visited when he wrote his epistle to the Romans, he sends a large number of salutations, (ch. xvi.); to the church at Ephesus, where he had spent a longer time than in any other place, he sends none, (c) The name of Timothy does not occur in the epistle. This is remarkable, because Paul had left him there with a special charge, (1 Tim. i. 3,) and if he was still there, it is singular that no allusion is made to him, and no salutation sent to him. If he had left Ephesus, and had gone to Rome to meet Paul as he requested, (2 Tim. iv. 9,) it is remarkable that Paul did not join his name with his own in sending the epistle to the church, or at least allude to the fact that he had arrived. This is the more remarkable, because in the Epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, and 1 and 2 Thessalonians, the name of Timothy is joined with that of Paul at the commencement of the epistle, (d) Paul speaks of the persons to whom this epistle was sent, as if he had not been with them, or at least in a manner which is hardly conceivable, on the supposition that he had been the founder of the church. Thus in ch. i. 15, 16, he says, " Wherefore also after I heard of your faith in Christ Jesus," &c. But this circumstance is not conclusive. Paul may have been told of the continuance of their faith, and of their grmving love and zeal, and he may have alluded to that in this passage, (e) Another circumstance on which some reliance has been placed, is the statement in ch. iii. 1, 2. " For this cause, I Paul, the prisoner of Jesus Christ for you Gentiles, if ye have heard of the dispensation of the grace of God which is given to youward," &c. It is argued (see Michaelis) that this is not language which would have been employed by one who had founded the church, anl with whom they were all acquainted. He would not have spoken in a manner implying any doubt whether they had ever heard of him and his kbours in the mmistry on account of the Gentiles. Such are the considerations relied on to show that the epistle could not have been written to the Ephesians.
On the oliier hand there is proof of a very strong character that it waa written to them. That proof is the following:
1. The common reading in ch. i. 1, "To the saints which are in Ephesus." It is true, as we have seen, that this reading has been called in question. Mill says that it is omitted by Basil, (Lib. 2. Adversus Eunomium,) as he says, " on the testimony of the fathers and of ancient copies." Griesbach marks it with the sign om., denoting that it was omitted by some, but that in his judgment it is to be retained. It is found in the Vulgate, the Syriac, the Arabic, and the Ethiopic in Walton's Polyglott. Rosenmiiller remarks that " most of the ancient codices, and all the ancient versions, retain the word." To my mind this fact is conclusive. The testimony of Marcion is admitted to be of almost no authority: and as to the testimony of Basil, it is only one against the testimony of all the ancients, and is at best negative in its character. See the passage from Basil, quoted in Hug's Introduction.
2. A slight circumstance may be adverted to as throwing light incidentally on this question. Tliis epistle was sent by Tychicus. Ch. vi. 21. The Epistle to the Colossians was also sent from Rome by the same messenger. Col. iv. 7. Now there is a strong improbability in the- opinion held by Michaelis, Koppe and others, that this was a circular letter, sent to the churches at large, or that different copies were prepared, and the name Ephesus inserted in one, and Laodicea in another, &c. The improbability is this, that the apostle would at the same time send such a circular letter to several of the churches, and a special letter to the church at Colosse. What claim had that church to special notice] What pre-emmence had it over the church at Ephesus 1 And why should he send them a letter bearing so strong a resemblance to that addressed to the other churches, when the same letter would have suited the church at Colosse as well as the one which was actually sent to them; for there is a nearer resemblance between these two epistles, than any other two portions of the Bible. Besides, in 2 Tim. iv. 12, Paul says that he had sent " Tychicus to Ephesus;" and what is more natural than that at that time he sent this epistle by him ]
3. There is the utter want of evidence from MSS. or versions, that this epistle was sent to Laodicea, or to any other church, except Ephesus. Not a MS. has been found having the name Laodicea in ver. i. 1.; and not one which omits the words " in Ephesus." If it had been sent to another church, or if it had been a circular letter addressed to no particular church, it is scarcely credible that this could have occurred.
These considerations make it plain to me that this epistle was addressed, as it purports to have been, to the church in Ephesus. I confess myself wholly unable, however, to explain the remarkable circumstances that Paul does not refer to his former residence tliere; that he alludes to none of his troubles or his triumphs; that he makes no mention of the " elders," and salutes no one by name; and that throughout he addresses them as if they were to him personally unknown. In this respect it is unlike all tlie other epistles which he ever wrote, and all which we should have expected from a man in such circumstances. May it not be accounted for from this very fact, that an attempt to specify individuals where so many were known, would protract the epistle to an unreasonable length? There is, indeed, one supposition suggested by Dr. Mac- Knight, which may possibly explain to some extent the remarkable circum-
Stances above referred to. It is, that a direction may have been given by- Paul to Ty chic us, by whom he sent the letter, to send a copy of it to the Laodiceans, with an order to them to communicate it to the Colossians. In such a case every thing local would be designedly omitted, and the epistle would be of as general a character as possible. This is, however, mere conjecture, and does not remove the whole of the difficulty.
5 6. The object for which the epistle was written.
Very various opinions have been formed in regard to the design for which this epistle was written. Macknight supposes that it was with reference to the Eleusinian mysteries, and to various religious rites in the Temple of Diana, and that Paul intended particularly to state the " mysteries" of the gospel in contradistinction from them. But there is no clear evidence that the apostle had any such object, and it is not necessary to go into an explanation of those mysteries in order to an understanding of the epistle. The epistle is such as might be addressed to any Christians, though there are allusions to customs which then prevailed, and to opinions then held, which it is desirable to understand in order to a just view of it. That there were Jews and Judaizing Christians in Ephesus, may be learned from the epistle itself That there were those there who supposed that the Jews were to have a more elevated rank than the Gentiles, may also be learned from the epistle; and one object was to show that all true Christians, whether of Jewish or Heathen origin, were on a level, and were entitled to the same privileges. That there was the prevalence of a false and dangerous philosophy there, may also be learned from the epistle; and that there were those who attempted to cause divisions, and who had violated the unity of the faith, may also be learned from it.
I. The doctrinal part comprises the following topics.
(1.) Praise to God for the revelation of his eternal counsels of recovering mercy. Ch. i. 3 — 14.
(2.) A prayer of the apostle, expressing his earnest desire that the Ephesians might avail themselves fully of all the advantages of this eternal purpose of mercy. Ch. i. 15 — ^23.
(3.) The doctrine of the native character of man, as being dead in sins, illustrated by the past lives of the Ephesians. Ch. ii. 1 — 3.
(4.) The doctrine of regeneration by the grace of God, and the advantages of it. Ch. ii. 5 — 7.
(5.) The doctrine of salvation by grace alone without respect to our own works. Ch. ii. 8, 9.
(6.) The privilege of being thus admitted to the fellowship of the tiaints. Ch. ii. 11—22.
(7.) A full statement of the doctrine that God meant to admit the Gentiles to the privileges of his people, and to break down the barriers between the Gentiles and the Jews. Ch. iii. 1 — 12.
(8.) The apostle prays earnestly that they might avail themselves folly of this doctrine, and be able to appreciate fully the advantages which it was intended to confer; and with this prayer he closes tlie doctrinal part of the epistle. Ch. iii. 13—21.
II. The practical part of the epistle embraces the following topics, viz.
(1.) Exhortation to unity, drawn from the consideration that there was one God, one faith, &c. Ch. iv. 1 — 16.
(2.) An exhortation to a holy life in general, from the fact that they differed from other Gentiles. Ch. iv. 17 — 2i.
(3.) Exhortation to exhibit particular virtues — specifying what was required by their religion, and what they should avoid — particularly to avoid the vices of anger, lying, licentiousness, and intemperance. Ch. iv. 25—32. Ch. v. 1—20.
(7.) An exhortation to fidelity in the Christian warfare. Ch. vi. 10 —20.
The style of this epistle is exceedingly animated. The apostle is cheered by the intelligence which he had received of their deportment in the gospel, and is warmed by the grandeur of his principal theme — the eternal purposes of divine mercy. Into the discussion of that subject he throws his whole soul, and there is probably no part of Paul's writings where there is more ardour, elevation, and soul evinced, than in this epistle. The great doctrine of predestination he approaches as a most important and vital doctrine; states it freely and fully, and urges it as the basis of the Christian's hope, and the foundation of eternal gratitude and praise. Perhaps nowhere is there a better illustration of the power of that doctrine to elevate the soul and fill it with grand conceptions of the character of God, and to excite grateful emotions, than in this epistle; and the Christian, therefore, may study it as a portion of the sacred writuigs eminently fitted to excite his gratitude, and to fill him with adoring views of God.
>AUL, an apostle of Jesus
Christ by the will of God,
(2.) The doctrine of predestination, and its bearing and design.
(fl) It is the foundation of praise to God, and is a source of gratitude.
(b) Christians have been chosen before the foundation of the world.
(c) The object was that they should be holy and blameless. Ver. 4.
(d) They were predestinated to be the children of God. Ver. 5.
(e) The cause of this was the good pleasure of God, or he did it according to the purpose of his will.
(/) The object of this was his own glory. Ver. 6.
(3.> The benefits of the plan of predestination to those who are thus chosen. Vs. 7 — 14.
(a) They have redemption and the forgiveness of sins. Vs. 7, 8.
(b) They are made acquainted with the mystery of the divine will. Vs. 9, 10.
(c) They have obtained an inheritance in Christ. Ver. 11.
• (d) The object of this was the praise of the glory of God. Ver. 12. (e) As the result of this, or in 2*
to the saints " which are at Ephesus, ^ and to the faithful ' in Christ Jesus: the execution of this purpose, they were sealed with the Holy Spirit of promise. Vs. 13, 14.
(4.) An earnest prayer that they might have a full understanding of the great and glorious plan of redemption. Vs. 15 — 23.
(a) Paul says that he had been informedof their faith. Ver. 15.
(6) He always remembered them in his prayers. Ver. 16.
(c) His especial desire was that they might see the glory of the Lord Jesus, whom God had exalted to his own right hand in heaven
1. Paul, an apostle. See Notes on Rom. i. 1. IT By the will of God. See Notes on 1 Cor. i. 1. IF To the saints. A name often given to Christians because they are holy. See Notes on 1 Cor. i. 2. IT In Ephesus. See the Introduction, $ 1. 5. IF And to the faithful in Christ Jesus. This evidently refers to others than to those who were in Ephesus, and it is clear that Paul expected that this epistle would be read by others. He gives it a general character, as if he supposed that it might be transcribed, and become the property of the church at large. It was not uncommon for him thus to give a general character to the epis- C17)'
2 Grace " be to you, and peace, from God our Father, and from the Lord Jesus Christ.
3 Blessed* be the God and
ties which he addressed to particular churches, and so to write that others than those to whom they were particularly directed, might feel that they were addressed to them. Thus the first epistle to the Corinthians was addressed to " the church of God in Corinth — with all that in every place call upon the name of Christ Jesus our Lord." The second epistle to the Corinthians in like manner was addressed to "the church of God which is at Corinth, with all the saints which are in all Achaia." Perhaps, in the epistle before us, the apostle referred particularly to the churches of Asia Minor which he had not visited, but there is no reason for confining the address to them. All who are " faithful in Christ Jesus" may regard the epistle as addressed by the Holy Spirit to them, and may feel that they are as much interested in the doctrines, promises, and duties set forth in this epistle, as were the ancient Christians of Ephesus. The word "faithfill" here is not used in the sense of trust-worthy, or in the sense of fidelity, as it is often employed, but in the sense of believing, or having faith in the Lord Jesus. The apostle addresses those who were firm in the faith — another name for true Christians. The epistle contains great doctrines about the divine purposes and decrees in which they, as Christians, were particularly concerned; important "mysteries," (ver. 9,) of importance for them to understand, and which the apostle proceeds to communicate to them as such. The fact that the letter was designed to be published, shows that he was not unwilling that those high
Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath blessed us with all spiritual blessings in heavenly ^places in Christ: '
doctrines should be made known to the world at large; still they pertained particularly to the church, and they are doctrines which should be particularly addressed to the church. They are rather fitted to V comfort the hearts of Christians, than to bring sinners to repentance. These doctrines may be addressed to the church with more prospect of securing a happy effect than to the world. In the church they will excite gratitu(^, and produce the hope which results from assured promises and eternal purposes; in the mmds of sinners they may arouse envy, and hatred, and opposition to God.
3. Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. This commences a sentence which continues to the close of ver. 12. The length of the periods in the writmgs of Paul, is one cause of the obscurity of his style, and renders an explanation often difficult. The meaning of this phrase is, that God has laid a foundation for gratitude for what he has done. The ground or reason of the praise here referred to, is that w^hich is stated in the following verses. The leading^thing on which the apostle dwells is God's eternal purpose — his everlasting counsel in regard to the salvation of man. Paul breaks out into the exclamation that God is worthy of ♦ praise for such a plan, and that hi? eternal purposes, now manifest to men, give exalted views of the character and glory of God. Most persons suppose the contrary. They feel that the plans of God are dark, and stem, and forbidding, and such as to render his character any thing but amiable. They speak of him when he is referred to as a sovereig-n, as if he were tyrannical and unjust, and they never connect the idea of that which is amiable and lovely with the doctrine of eternal purposes. There is no doctrine that is usually so unpopular; none that is so much reproached; none that is so much abused. There is none that men desire so much to disbelieve or avoid; none that they are so unwilling to have preached; and none that they are so reluctant to find in the Scriptures. Even many Christians turn away from it with dread; or if they tolerate it, they yet feel that there is something about it that is peculiarly dark and forbidding. Not so felt Paul. He felt that it laid the foundation for eternal praise; that it presented glorious views of God; that it was the ground of confidence and hope; and that it was desirable that Christians should dwell upon it, and praise God for it. Let us feel, therefore, as we enter upon the exposition of this chapter, that God is to be praised for all his plans, and that it is possible for Christians to have such views of the doctrine of eternal predestination as to give them most elevated conceptions of the glory of the divine character. And let us also be willing to know the truth. Let us approach word after word, and phrase after phrase, and verse after verse, in this chapter, willing to know all that God teaches; to believe all that he has revealed; and ready to say, * Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ for all that he has done.' IT Who hath blessed us. Who does Paul mean here by " ws.?" Does he mean all the world 1 This cannot be, for all the world are not.thus blessed with all spiritual blessings. Does he mean nations? For the same reason this cannot be. Does he mean the Gentiles in contradistinction from the Jews'? Why then does he use the word ws, including himself, who was a Jew ] Does he mean to say that they were blessed with external privileges, and that this was the only object of the eternal purposes of God 1 This cannot be, for he speaks of " spiritual blessings;" he speaks of the persons referred to as having- "redemption" and " the forgiveness of sins;" as having "obtained an inheritance," and as being sealed with the " Holy Spirit of promise." These appertain not to nations, or to external privileges, or the mere offers of the gospel, but to true Christians; to persons who have been redeemed. The persons referred to by the word " Its," are those who are mentioned in ver. 1, as '■'•saints''' — oLyioii — holy; and " faithful" — kiottoIs-— believing, or believers. This observation is important, because it shows that the plan or decree of God had reference to individuals, and not merely to nations. Many have supposed (see Whitby, Dr. A. Clarke, Bloomfield and others) that the apostle here refers to the Gentiles, and that his object is to show that they were now admitted to the same privileges as the ancient Jews, and that the whole doctrine of predestination here referred to, has relation to that fact. But, I would ask, were there no Jews in the church at Ephesus 1 See Acts xviii. 20. 24; xix. 1—8. The matter of fact seems to have been, that Paul was uncommonly successful there among his own countrymen, and that his chief difficulty there arose, not from the Jews, but from the influence of the heathen. Acts xix. 24. Besides, what evidence is there that the apostle speaks in this chapter peculiarly of the Gentiles, or that he was writing to that portion of the church at Ephesus which was of Gentile origin f And if he was, why did he name hunself among^ their^ as one
4 According as he hath chosen " us in him before the foundation of the world that we should be
on whom this blessing had been bestowed? The fact is, that this is a mere supposition, resorted to without evidence, and in the face of every fair priaciple of interpretation, to avoid an unpleasant doctrine. Nothing can be clearer than that Paul meant to write to Christians as such,- to speak of privileges which they enjoyed as peculiar to themselves; and that he had no particular reference to nations, and did not design merely to refer to external privileges. IT With all spiritual blessings. Pardon, peace, redemption, adoption, the earnest of the Spirit, &,c., referred to in the following verses — blessings which individual Christians enjoy, and not external privileges conferred on nations. If In heavenly places in Christ, The word places is here understood, and is not in the original. It may mean heavenly places, or heavenly things. The word places does not express the best sense. The idea seems to be, that God has blessed us in Christ in regard to heavenly subjects or matters. In ver. 20, the word " places" seems to be inserted with more propriety. The same phrase occurs again in ch. ii. 6; iii. 10; and it is remarkable that it should occur in the same elliptical form four times in this one epistle, and, I believe, in no other part of the writings of Paul. Our translators have in each instance supplied the word "places," as denoting the rank or station of Cln*istians, of the angels, and of the Saviour, to each of whom it is applied. The phrase probably means, in things pertaining to heai'en; fitted to prepare us for heaven; and tending toward
holy,'' and without blame before him in love:
heaven. It probably refers nere to every thing that was heavenly in its nature, or that had relation to heaven, whether gifts or graces. As the apostle is speaking, however, of the mass of Christians on whom these things had been bestowed, I rather suppose that he refers to what are called Christian graces, than to the extraorduiary endowments bestowed on the few. The sense is, that in Christ; i. e. through Christ, or by means of him, God had bestowed all spiritual blessings that were fitted to prepare for heaven — such as pardon, adoption, the iUu mination of the Spirit, &c.
4. According as. The importance of this verse will render proper a somewhat minute examination of the words and phrases of which it is composed. The general sense of the passage is, that these blessings pertaining to heaven were bestowed upon Christians in accordance with an eternal purpose. They were not conferred by chance or hap-hazard. They were the result of intention and design on the part of God. Their value was greatly enhanced fi:om the fact that God had designed fi*om all eternity to bestow them, and that they come to us as the result of his everlasting plan. It was not a recent plan; it was not an after-thought; it was not by mere chance; it was not by caprice; it was the fruit of an eternal counsel. Those blessings had all the value, and all the assurance of permanency, which must result fi*om that fact. The phrase "according as" — xa^us — implies that these blessings were in conformity with that eternal plan, and have flowed to us as the expression of that plan. They are limited by that purpose, for it marks and mea- Bures all. It was as God had chosen that it should be, and had appointed in his eternal purpose. IT He hath chosen us. The word "ms" here shows that the apostle had reference to individuals, and not to communities. It includes Paul himself as one of the "chosen," and those whom he addressed — the mingled Gentile and Jewish converts in Ephesus. That it must refer to individuals is clear. Of no community as such can it be said that it was "chosen in Christ before the foundation of the world to be holy." It is not true of the Gentile world as such, nor of any one of the nations making up the Gentile world. The word rendered here "hath chosen" — i^eXi^iTo — is from a word meaning to lay out together, (Passow,) to choose out, to select. It has the idea of making a choice or selection among different objects or things. It is applied to things, as in Luke X. 42. Mary ^'■hath chosen that good part;" — she has made a choice, or selection of it, or has shown a preference for it 1 Cor. i. 27. " God hath chosen the foolish things of the world;" he has preferred to make use of them among all the conceivable things which might have been employed " to confound the wise." Comp. Acts i. 2. 24; vi. 5; xv. 22. 25. It denotes to choose out, with the accessary idea of kindness or favour. Mark xiii. 20. "For the elect's sake whom he hath chosen, he hath shortened the days." John xiii. 18. " I know whom I have chosen." Acts xiii. 17. " The God of this people of Israel chose our fathers;" that is, selected them from the nations to accomplish important purposes. This is evidently the sense of the word in the passage before us. It means to make a selection or choice with tlie idea tf fiivour or love, and. with a view to impart important benefits on those whom he chose. The idea of making some distinc' tion between them and otJiers, is essential to a correct understanding of the passage — since there can be no choice where no such distinction is made. He who chooses one out of many things makes a difterence, or evinces a preference — ^no matter what the ground or reason of his doing it may be. Whether this refers to communities and nations, or to individuals, still it is true that a distinction is made, or a preference given of one over another. It may be added, that so far SiS justice is concerned, it makes no difference whether it refers to nations or to individuals. If there is injustice in choosing an individual to favour, there cannot be less in choosing a nation — for a nation is nothing but a collection of individuals. Every objection which has ever been made to the doctrine of election as it relates to individuals, will apply with equal force to the choice of a nation to peculiar privileges. If a distinction is made, it may be made with as much propriety in respect to individuals as to nations. IF In him. In Christ. The choice was not without reference to any means of saving them; it was not a mere purpose to bring a certain number to heaven; it was with reference to the mediation of the Redeemer, and his work. It was a purpose that they should be saved by him, and share the benefits of the atonement. The whole choice and pur}x>se of salvation had reference to him, and out of him no one was chosen to life, and no one out of him will be saved. IT Before the foundation of the world. This is a very important phrase in determining the time when the choice was made. It was not an afterthought. It was not commenced in time. The purpose was far back in the ages of eternity. But what is the meaning of the phrase " before the foundation of the world f" Dr. Clarke supposes that it means " from the commencement of the religious system of the Jews, which," says he, " the phrase sometimes means." Such principles of interpretation are they compelled to resort to who endeavour to show that this refers to a national election to privileges, and who deny that it refers to individuals. On such principles the Bible may be made to signify any thing and every thing. Dr. Chandler, who also supposes that it refers to nations, admits, however, that the word "foundation" means the beginning of any thing; and that the phrase here means, "before the world began." There is scarcely any phrase in the New Testament which is more clear in its signification than this. The word rendered " foundation" — KaTajSoXij — means properly a laying down, a founding, a foundation — as where the foundation of a building is laid — and the phrase "before the foundation of the world" clearly means before the world was made, or before the work of creation. SeeMatt. xiii. 35;xxv. 34 Lukexi. 50. Heb. ix. 26. Rev. xiii. 8, in all which places the phrase "the foundation of the world" means the beginning of hum^in affairs; the beginning of the world; the beginning of history, &c. Thus in John xvii. 24, the Lord Jesus says, "thou lovedst me before the foundation of the world," i. e. from eternity, or before the work of creation commenced. Thus Peter says (1 Epis. i 20) of the Saviour, " who verily was fore -ordained before the foundation of the world." It was the purpose of God before the worlds were made, to send him to save lost men. Comp. Rev. xvii. 8. Nothing can be clearer than that the phrase before us must refer to a purpose that was formed before the world was made. It is not a temporary arrangement; it has not grown up under tiie influence of vacillating purposes; it is not a plan newly formed, or changed with each coming generation, or variable like the plans of men.- It has all the importance, dignity, and assurances of stability which necessarily result from a purpose that has been eternal in the mind of God. It may be observed here, (1.) that if the plan was formed " before the foundation of the world," all objections to the doctrine of an eternal plan are removed. If the plan was formed before the world, no matter whether a moment, an hour, a year, or millions of years, the plan is equally fixed, and the event equally necessary. All the objections which will lie against an eternal plan, will lie against a plan formed a day or an hour before the event. The one interferes with our freedom of action as much as the other. (2.) If the plan was formed "before the foundation of the world," it was eternal. God has no new plan. He forms no new schemes. He is not changing and vacillating. It we can ascertain what is the plan of God at any time, we can ascertain what his eternal plan was with reference to the event. It has always been the same — for " he is of ONE MIND, and who can turn him 1" Job xxiii. 13. In reference to the plans and purposes of the Most High, there is nothing better settled than
ALWAYS MEANT TO DO — which is the doctrine of eternal decrees — and the whole of it. IF That we should be holy. Paul proceeds to state the object for which God had chosen his people. It is not merely that they should enter into heaven. It is not that they may live in sin. It is not that they may flatter themselves that they are safe, and then live as they please. The tendency among men has always been to abuse the doctrine of predestination and elec-
5 Having predestinated unto the adoption ' of children by